7. See Surgeon Eugene F. Sanger, “Extracts from the Report of the Medical Director of the Nineteenth Corps, for April, 1864,” in The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion (1861–1865) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1870), 335.
8. Confederate successes kept Steele from reinforcing General Nathaniel Banks, who also suffered a humiliating loss during the Red River Campaign of 1864. A. C. Wedge quoted in C. C. Andrews, “Narrative of the Third,” in Minnesota, 174–75; Christopher C. Andrews, Pioneer in Forestry Conservation in the United States: For Sixty Years a Dominant Influence in the Public Affairs of Minnesota: Lawyer: Editor: Diplomat: General in the Civil War. Recollections: 1829–1922, ed. Alice E. Andrews (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1928), 191 (quotation); Stephen Miller to E.R.S. Canby, April 4, 1865, OR, vol. 48, ser. 1, pt. 2, 31–32.
9. OR, vol. 41, ser. 1, pt. 2, 711–16; W. P. Belden to Stephen Miller, October 29, 1864, reprinted in Johnson, “Narrative of the Sixth Regiment,” 322–26 (quotation); OR, vol. 41, ser. 1, pt. 3, 502; Arthur M. Daniels, A Journal of Sibley’s Indian Expedition during the Summer of 1863 and Record of the Troops Employed by a Soldier in Company “H,” Sixth Regiment (Minneapolis: James D. Thueson Publisher, 1980), 151; Alfred J. Hill, History of Company E of the Sixth Minnesota Regiment of Volunteer Infantry (1899; rpt., St. Paul, Minn.: Budd Parrish, 1992), 28 (quotation); Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 72–75, 86; OR, vol. 41, ser. 1, pt. 1, 190–91.
10. Dr. Benjamin Woodward to Dr. Elisha Harris, September 15, 1865, United States Sanitary Commission Records, Series 1: Medical Committee Archives, 1861–1866, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; H. W. Halleck to Reynolds, January 26, 1865, OR, vol. 48, ser. 1, pt. 1, 649.
11. Joseph Palmer Blessington, The Campaigns of Walker’s Texas Division (Austin: State House Press, 1994), 42 (quotation); Junius N. Bragg to “My Dear Josephine,” December (?), 1862, and Bragg to “My Darling Wife,” August 18, 1863, in J. N. Bragg, Letters of a Confederate Surgeon, 1861–65 (Camden, Ark.: Hurley Co., 1960), 101–4, 169 (quotation); William M. McPheeters, I Acted from Principle: The Civil War Diary of Dr. William M. McPheeters, Confederate Surgeon in the Trans-Mississippi, ed. Cynthia Dehaven Pitcock and Bill J. Gurley (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2002), 41–63, 94–95 (quotation); OR, vol. 22, ser. 1, pt. 1, 439.
12. J. Bankhead Magruder to J. F. Belton, May 7, 1863, OR, vol. 15, ser. 1, 1078–79 (quotation).
13. Austin State Gazette, September 28, October 12 and 26, November 23, and December 7, 14, and 24, 1864; Houston Tri-Weekly Telegraph, November 16, 1864; “The Diary of H. C. Medford, Confederate Soldier, 1864,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 34 (1930): 106–40; Peggy H. Gregory, comp., Record of Interments of the City of Galveston, 1859–1872 (Houston: privately printed, 1976), 34, Rosenberg Library, Galveston, Tex.; Charles W. Hayes, History of the Island and the City of Galveston (Austin, Tex.: Jenkins Garrett Press, 1974), 2:625–26; Charles C. Cumberland, “The Confederate Loss and Recapture of Galveston, 1862–1863,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 51 (October 1947): 118; Alwyn Barr, “Texas Coastal Defense, 1861–1865,” in Lonestar Blue and Gray: Essays on Texas in the Civil War, ed. Ralph A. Wooster (Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1995), 14–15; David G. McComb, Galveston: A History (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), 79; H. C. Medord, “The Diary of H. C. Medford, Confederate Soldier, 1864,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 34 (1930): 106–40; Austin State Gazette, September 21 (quotation) & October 12, 1864; Charles W. Hayes, History of the Island and the City of Galveston (Austin, Tex.: Jenkins Garrett Press, 1974), 2:623–25; OR, vol. 41, ser. 1, pt. 2, 1020; D. G. Farragut to W. E. Le Roy, September 21, 1864, Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, vol. 21, ser. 1, 655, hereafter referred to as ORN.
14. Austin State Gazette, December 7, 14, and 24, 1864; Galveston Interment Records, 43–49; J. G. Walker to W. R. Boggs, October 26, 1864, OR, vol. 41, ser. 1, pt. 4, 1014–15 (quotation); Hayes, Galveston, 649–51; K. David Patterson, “Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693–1905,” Social Science and Medicine 34 (1992): 858.
15. ORN, vol. 27, ser. 1, 595–96; Jo Ann Carrigan, “Yankees versus Yellow Jack in New Orleans, 1862–1866,” Civil War History 9 (September 1963): 256; Elisha Harris, M.D., “Hygenic Experience in New Orleans during the War: Illustrating the Importance of Efficient Sanitary Regulations,” Southern Medical and Surgical Journal 21 (July 1866): 86; Jo Ann Carrigan, The Saffron Scourge: A History of Yellow Fever in Louisiana, 1796–1905 (Lafayette: Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1994), 82; U.S. Navy, 1775–1910, Special Reports, Epidemics, Special Incidents, Etc. 1830–1910, Record Group 45, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
16. Fort Jefferson continued to experience yellow fever epidemics after the war was over. Dr. Samuel Mudd, the physician who famously set John Wilkes Booth’s leg after the Lincoln assassination, was imprisoned in the fort and aided victims during an 1867 outbreak. Emily Holder, At the Dry Tortugas during the War, quoted in Lewis G. Schmidt, The Civil War in Florida: A Military History (Allentown, Pa.: by the author, 1992), 3:868–69 (quotation); “The Situation,” New York Herald, November 2, 1864.
17. New York Times, August 31, 1864 (quotation); John A. Wilder to mother, June 19, 1864, and Wilder to brother-in-law, August 2, 1864, in Millicent Todd Bingham, ed., “Key West in the Summer of 1864,” Florida Historical Quarterly 43 (1965): 262–65 (quotation); Book Records of Union Volunteer Organizations, Second USCT Infantry Regimental Order, Letter, Endorsement, Deaths, Discharges, and Miscellaneous Book, Record Group 94, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; Book Records of Volunteer Union Organizations, Second USCT Infantry Descriptive Book, Records of the Adjutant General’s Office, Record Group 94, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
18. ORN, vol. 21, ser. 1, 277, 601, 614–15: ORN, vol. 27, ser. 1, 625, 629; Theodorus Bailey to Gideon Welles, July 27, 1864, Welles to Bailey, July 19, 1864, ORN, vol. 17, ser. 1, 723, 733, 737 (quotation); Schmidt, Civil War in Florida, 860; Edward S. Miller, “A Long War and a Sickly Season,” Blue & Gray Magazine 9 (June 1992): 40–44.
19. James O. Breeden, “A Medical History of the Later Stages of the Atlanta Campaign,” Journal of Southern History 35 (February 1969): 31–59; C. S. Frink, “Extracts from a Report on the Operations of the Medical Department of the Third Division of the Twenty-third Corps from June 11, to September 10, 1864,” in The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion (1861–1865) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1870), 318 (quotation); Jasper E. James, Letters from a Civil War Soldier, ed. Vera Dockery Elkins (New York: Vantage Press, 1969), 52 (quotation); Stephen Davis, Atlanta Will Fall: Sherman, Joe Johnston, and the Yankee Heavy Battalions (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2001), 33–34.
20. MSH, 5:105; W.A.W. Spotswood to S. R. Mallory, November 30, 1863, ORN, vol. 2, ser. 2, 559–61; Dabney H. Maury to S. Cooper, November 10, 1864, OR, vol. 39, ser. 1, pt. 3, 910–11 (quotation); James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Ballantine Books, 1988), 761; Confederate Medical Department, Register of Patients, Ross Hospital, Mobile, Ala., 1863–65, Record Group 109, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; Foote, Civil War, 3:967.
21. Alfred Jay Bollet, M.D., Plagues & Poxes: The Impact of Human History on Epidemic Disease (New York: Demos, 2004), 37; Margaret Humphreys, Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 11–13; Steiner, Disease, 219.
CHAPTER 7: BIOLOGICAL WARFARE
1. New York Times, May 30, 1865 (quotation); William A. Tidwell, James O. Hall, and David Winfred Gaddy, Come Retribution: The Confederate Secret Service and the Assassination of Lincoln (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1988), 186–87.
2. Nancy Disher Baird, Luke Pryor Blackburn: Physician, Governor, Reformer (
Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1979), Tidwell, Retribution, 185; Edward Steers Jr., “Risking the Wrath of God,” North & South 3 (September 2000): 59–70.
3. Edward Steers Jr., “A Rebel Plot and Germ Warfare,” Washington Times, November 10, 2001; Ben. Perley Poore, ed., The Conspiracy Trial for the Murder of the President, and the Attempt to Overthrow the Government by the Assassination of Its Principal Officers (Boston: J. E. Tilton and Co., 1865), 2:409–19 (quotation).
4. Blackburn was not the only Confederate interested in using yellow fever against northerners. Early in the war a Louisianan named R. R. Barrow advocated sending blankets infected with yellow fever into New Orleans in order to trigger an epidemic that would end the Union occupation there. See R. R. Barrow to D. F. Kenner, September 11, 1862, John T. Pickett Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; “The Soiled Clothes Investigation in St. Georges,” Bermuda Royal Gazette, April 25, 1865 (quotation); Steers, “Wrath,” 64–67; John W. Headley, Confederate Operations in Canada and New York (New York: Neale Publishing Co., 1906), 264–65; Tidwell, Come Retribution, 186; Baird, Blackburn, 8; K. J. Stewart to Jefferson Davis, November 30 and December 12, 1864, Prison Pens, Canada Raids, Secret Operations, 1864, Record Group 109, chap. 7, vol. 24, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
5. Thomas J. Farnham and Francis P. King, “‘The March of the Destroyer’: The New Bern Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1864,” North Carolina Historical Review 73 (October 1996): 435–83; Stanley B. Weld, “A Connecticut Surgeon in the Civil War: The Reminiscences of Dr. Nathan Mayer,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 19 (July 1964): 284–85; Sheldon B. Thorpe, The History of the Fifteenth Connecticut Volunteers in the War for the Defense of the Union, 1861–1865 (New Haven, Conn.: Price, Lee & Adkins, 1893), 233; The Medical and Surgical History of the Civil War (Wilmington, N.C.: Broadfoot Publishing Co., 1991), 5:679–682, hereafter referred to as MSH; James Gifford to Parents, September 26, 1864, James Gifford Papers, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
6. Alan D. Watson, A History of New Bern and Craven County (New Bern: Tryon Palace Commission, 1987), 408–9; Thomas Kirwan, Memorial History of the Seventeenth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry (Old and New Organizations) in the Civil War from 1861–1865 (Salem, Mass.: Salem Press Co., 1911), 247–51; Thorpe, History of the Fifteenth Connecticut Volunteers, 234–36; MSH, 2:239; Farnham and King, “March,” 456–60; Judkin Browning and Michael Thomas Smith, eds., Letters from a North Carolina Unionist: John A. Hedrick to Benjamin S. Hedrick, 1862–1865 (Raleigh: North Carolina Division of Archives and History, 2001), 227–28; MSH, 5:679; W. S. Benjamin, The Great Epidemic in New Berne and Vicinity, September and October, 1864, by One Who Passed through It (New Bern, N.C.: Geo. Mills Joy, 1865), 16–19.
7. Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, vol. 8, ser. 1, 263–64, hereafter referred to as ORN; The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, vol. 35, ser. 1, pt. 2, 310–11, hereafter referred to as OR; Lonnie R. Speer, Portals to Hell: Military Prisons of the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1997), 215; Charleston Daily Courier, October 5, 11, 18, and 20, 1864; Charleston Mercury, November 7 and 8, 1864; OR, vol. 42, ser. 1, pt. 3, 1151–53; Grant to General Ruger, July 7, 1865, OR, vol. 47, ser. 1, pt. 3, 675–76.
8. Farnham and King, “March,” 435–483; Benjamin, Great Epidemic, 10–11; “The Yellow Fever Plot: Newbern, N.C., May 31, 1865,” Bermuda Royal Gazette, June 13, 1865 (quotation).
9. Morphine (pain reliever), ether, and chloroform (anesthetics) were also in high demand across the South. Michael A. Flannery, Civil War Pharmacy: A History of Drugs, Drug Supply and Provision, and Therapeutics for the Union and Confederacy (New York: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 2004), 193; William Diamond, “Imports of the Confederate Government from Europe and Mexico,” Journal of Southern History 6 (November 1940): 470–503; Mary Elizabeth Massey, Ersatz in the Confederacy: Shortages and Substitutes on the Southern Homefront (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993), 11, 120; Norman H. Franke, “Rx Prices in the Confederacy,” Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, no. 12 (December 1961): 773–74; Joseph Jacobs, “Some of the Drug Conditions during the War between the States, 1861–5,” Southern Historical Papers 33 (Richmond, Va.: Southern Historical Society, 1905), 175.
10. Francis B. Simkins and James W. Patton, “The Work of Southern Women among the Sick and Wounded of the Confederate Armies,” Journal of Southern History 1 (November 1935): 475–96; Louise Llewellyn Jarecka, “Virginia Moon, Unreconstructed Rebel,” Delphian Quarterly 30 (January 1947): 17–21 (quotation); Elizabeth D. Leonard, All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 72, 82 (quotation); Mary Elizabeth Massey, Bonnet Brigades (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), 105–6; Alan Axelrod, The War between the Spies: A History of Espionage during the American Civil War (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1992), 32; J. Hampton Hoch, “Through the Blockade,” Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 12 (December 1961): 769–70.
11. OR, vol. 2, ser. 2, 329 (quotation); OR, vol. 4, ser. 2, 880–85 (quotation); Willard Carver, Fourteenth Regt., Maine Infantry. Roster of Survivors with Abstract of Regimental History (1890), 2 (quotation), Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; Joseph H. Parks, “A Confederate Trade Center under Federal Occupation: Memphis, 1862 to 1865,” Journal of Southern History 7 (August 1941): 289–314.
12. Yellow fever occasionally disrupted the activities of these runners (and the Federal ships that hunted them) because they operated out of ports where the disease was endemic. The 1864 outbreak in Bermuda, for example, prompted the U.S. consul there to declare the island’s “blockade-running business … to be at an end for the season.” See ORN, vol. 3, ser. 1, 161–63 and 447.
13. Frank E. Vandiver, Confederate Blockade Running through Bermuda, 1861–1865: Letters and Cargo Manifests (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1947), 109; Thomas E. Taylor, Running the Blockade: A Personal Narrative of Adventures, Risks, and Escapes during the American Civil War (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1995), xxvi, 18, 65; Wilmington Daily Journal, October 1, 1863; Flannery, Pharmacy, 200 (quotation); Massey, Ersatz, 115.
14. OR, vol. 1, ser. 4, 1041; H. H. Cunningham, Doctors in Gray: The Confederates Medical Service (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1958), 29, 146–48; Francis Peyre Porcher, Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests (1863; rpt., New York: Arno Press, 1970), 38–411; OR, vol. 2, ser. 4, 1024; George Worthington Adams, “Confederate Medicine,” Journal of Southern History 6 (May 1940), 151–66; Charleston Daily Courier, August 11, 1862; Massey, Ersatz, 120.
15. Flannery, Pharmacy, 227; New Orleans Daily Picayune, August 4, 1861; Guy R. Hasegawa, “Pharmacy in the American Civil War,” American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 57 (March 2000): 475–89; Anna DeWolf Middleton to Anna E. Marston De-Wolf, September 19, 1864, Nathaniel Russell Middleton Papers, in Records of Ante-bellum Southern Plantations from the Revolution through the Civil War, ed. Kenneth M. Stampp, microfilm (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985–2000), ser. J, pt. 3.
16. OR, vol. 2, ser. 4, 1024; OR, vol. 35, ser. 1, pt. 2, 592–93; Cunningham, Gray, 157, 191; Harper’s Weekly, August 27, 1864, 547; David J. Eicher, The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 723; Herbert M. Nash, M.D., “Some Reminiscences of a Confederate Surgeon,” Transactions of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia 28 (Philadelphia: printed for the College, 1906), 135–36; ORN, vol. 10, ser. 1, 350–53, 730–50; OR, vol. 42, ser. 1, pt. 2, 1271.
17. These percentages include cases of “remittent fever,” “quotidian intermittent fever,” “tertian intermittent fever,” “quartan intermittent fever,” and “congestive intermittent fever.” “Other diseases of this [Miasmatic] Order” (447 cases) are not included. MSH, vol. 1, 174–78, 490–91; Harper’s Weekly, March 11, 1
865, 149; George Worthington Adams, Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 104; OR, vol. 17, ser. 1, pt. 2, 640.
18. Flannery, Civil War Pharmacy, 163–68; Paul E. Steiner, Disease in the Civil War: Natural Biological Warfare in 1861–1865 (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1968), 22.
EPILOGUE
1. OR, vol. 14, ser. 1, 539; OR, vol. 25, ser. 1, pt. 2, 790. See also Alexander H. H. Stuart to George W. Randolph, April 28, 1862, OR, vol. 51, ser. 1, pt. 2, 550–51.
2. K. David Patterson, “Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693–1905,” Social Science and Medicine 34 (1992): 855–65; Margaret Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 60–64.
3. Scientists are only now beginning to understand the extent of genetic diversity within the Plasmodium genus. See “Genetic Map Offers New Tool for Malaria Research,” Science Daily, December 12, 2006, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/12/061211092750.htm (January 20, 2009).
4. John Duffy “The Impact of Malaria on the South,” in Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South, ed. Todd L. Savitt and James Harvey Young (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 29–54. For more information on New England’s postwar epidemic, see “The Increase of Malaria,” Boston Daily Advertiser, June 22, 1882; and “Malaria. By a Massachusetts Physician,” Boston Congregationalist, January 14, 1886.
5. Leslie Poles Hartley, The Go-Between (London: H. Hamilton, 1953).
6. Christian F. Ockenhouse, Alan Magill, Dale Smith, and Wil Milhous, “History of U.S. Military Contributions to the Study of Malaria,” Military Medicine 170 (April 2005): 12–16; Ashley M. Croft, Alicia H. Darbyshire, Christopher J. Jackson, and Pieter P. van Thiel, “Malaria Prevention Measures in Coalition Troops in Afghanistan,” Journal of the American Medical Association 297, May 23–30, 2007, 2197–99; Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949).
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