Mitchell, Reid. Civil War Soldiers. New York: Penguin Books, 1988.
Moulton, Forest Ray, ed. A Symposium on Human Malaria with Special Reference to North America and the Caribbean Region. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1941.
Ockenhouse, Christian F., Alan Magill, Dale Smith, and Wil Milhous. “History of U.S. Military Contributions to the Study of Malaria.” Military Medicine 170 (April 2005): 12–16.
Parks, Joseph H. “A Confederate Trade Center under Federal Occupation: Memphis, 1862 to 1865.” Journal of Southern History 7 (August 1941): 289–314.
Parment, Sharon. “Malaria.” Journal of the American Medical Association 291, June 2, 2004, 2664.
Patterson, Gordon. The Mosquito Wars: A History of Mosquito Control in Florida. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004.
Patterson, K. David. “Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693–1905.” Social Science and Medicine 34 (1992): 855–65.
Pearce, George F. Pensacola during the Civil War. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000.
Rivers, Thomas M. Viral and Rickettsial Infections of Man. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1952.
Robertson, James I., Jr. Soldiers Blue and Gray. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.
Rose, Willie Lee. Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment. Lon-don: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Ross, Michael A. “Justice Miller’s Reconstruction: The Slaughter-House Cases, Health Codes, and Civil Rights in New Orleans, 1861–1873.” Journal of Southern History 64 (November 1998): 649–76.
Rutman, Darrett B., and Anita H. Rutman. “Of Agues and Fevers: Malaria in the Early Chesapeake.” William and Mary Quarterly 33 (January 1976): 31–60.
Savitt, Todd L., and James Harvey Young, eds. Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988.
Schmidt, Lewis G. A Civil War History of the 47th Regiment of Pennsylvania Veteran Volunteers: The Wrong Place at the Wrong Time. Allentown, Pa.: Lewis G. Schmidt, 1986.
———. The Civil War in Florida. 4 vols. Allentown, Pa.: Lewis G. Schmidt, 1992.
Simkins, Francis B., and James W. Patton. “The Work of Southern Women among the Sick and Wounded of the Confederate Armies.” Journal of Southern History 1 (November 1935): 475–96.
Smith, Dale C. “The Rise and Fall of Typhomalarial Fever: I. Origins.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 37 (April 1982): 182–220.
Spielman, Andrew, and Michael D’Antonio. Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe. New York: Hyperion, 2001.
Steers, Edward, Jr. “A Rebel Plot and Germ Warfare.” Washington Times, November 10, 2001.
———. “Risking the Wrath of God.” North & South 3 (September 2000): 59–70.
Steiner, Paul. Disease in the Civil War: Natural Biological Warfare in 1861–1865. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1968.
———. Medical History of a Civil War Regiment: Disease in the Sixty-fifth United States Colored Infantry. N.p.: Institute of Civil War Studies, 1977.
Strode, Hudson. Jefferson Davis: American Patriot, 1808–1861. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1955.
Tidwell, William A., James O. Hall, and David Winfred Gaddy. Come Retribution: The Confederate Secret Service and the Assassination of Lincoln. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1988.
Underwood, Anne. “Tracking Disease.” Newsweek 146, November 14, 2005, 46–48.
Underwood, Rodman L. Waters of Discord: The Union Blockade of Texas during the Civil War. London: McFarland & Co., 2003.
Wahlgren, Mats, and Peter Perlmann, eds. Malaria: Molecular and Clinical Aspects. Amsterdam: Overseas Publishing Association, 1999.
Waring, Joseph I. A History of Medicine in South Carolina, 1825–1900. Charleston: South Carolina Medical Association, 1967.
Warrell, David A., and Hebert M. Gilles, eds. Essential Malariology. 4th ed. London: Arnold, 2002.
Warren, Christopher. “Northern Chills, Southern Fevers: Race-Specific Mortality in American Cities, 1730–1900.” Journal of Southern History 63 (February 1997): 23–56.
Watson, Alan D. A History of New Bern and Craven County. New Bern: Tryon Palace Commission, 1987.
Watts, Sheldon. Epidemics and History: Disease, Power, and Imperialism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.
Wiley, Bell I. The Life of Billy Yank. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1951.
———. The Life of Johnny Reb. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1943.
Wood, Peter H. Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion. New York: W. W. Norton, 1974.
Wood, Richard Everett. “Port Town at War: Wilmington, North Carolina 1860–1865.” Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1976.
Wooster, Ralph A., ed. Lonestar Blue and Gray: Essays on Texas in the Civil War. Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1995.
“Yellow Fever Vaccine.” World Health Organization Weekly Epidemiological Record 78 (2003): 349–59.
Young, Kevin R. To the Tyrants Never Yield. Plano: Wordware Publishing, 1992.
INDEX
Abolitionists, 18
Aedes aegypti mosquito, 15, 17, 20, 35, 39, 41–42, 44, 46, 47, 71, 75, 76, 84, 99–100, 114, 117, 119–20. See also Mosquitoes
Yellow fever
Afghanistan, 120
African Americans: diseases of black soldiers generally, 82, 99, 119
education of, 49
immunity of, to malaria and yellow fever, 12–13, 18, 61–62, 81–82, 102, 107, 141n22, 153n6
malaria and yellow fever in black soldiers, 2, 34, 51, 62, 82, 98–99, 102, 107, 125, 127;
malaria in African American “contrabands,” 60, 62, 102
Shelby’s murder of black soldiers in Arkansas, 94
as Union soldiers, 61–62, 80–81, 119
Africans’ immunity to malaria and yellow fever, 12–13, 141n22
Ague, 18, 25, 29–30, 56, 68, 69, 72, 79, 89–90, 100. See also Malaria
CSS Alabama, 46
Alabama: malaria in, 13, 27–28
Mitchel’s invasion of, 48
mosquitoes in, 27–28
yellow fever in, 20, 32–33
Alabama, Thirty-fifth Infantry, 79–80
USS Albatross, 86
Alexander, Edward Porter, 25–26
Alspaugh, Granville, 63
American Medical Association, 111
American Medical Times, 81
American Revolution, 6
Anaconda Plan, 19, 54
Andrews, Christopher, 93
Anesthesia, 5, 159–60n9
Anglo-Confederate Trading Company, 110–11
Anopheles mosquitoes, 10–11, 20, 22–23, 26–29, 34–35, 47, 56, 71–73, 75, 76, 120. See also Malaria
Mosquitoes
Antietam Creek, Battle of, 61, 116
CSS Arkansas, 65, 150n14
Arkansas: black soldiers in, 94
Confederate troops in, 94–95
hospitals for Union troops in, 91, 93
malaria in, 14, 27, 68, 89–95, 101–2
mosquito netting used in, 31
mosquitoes in, 90–94
Shelby’s raids and murder of black soldiers in, 94
Union troops in, 88–94
Arlington, Va., 22–23
Arsenic, 83, 85
Atlanta, Ga., 92, 100–101
Augusta, Ga., 16
Bahamas, 111
Bailey, Orra, 28
Bailey, Theodorus, 99
Baker, John, 99
Banks, Nathaniel, 81, 92, 150n10, 156n8
Barrow, R. R., 159n4
Barton, Seth M., 82
Barton, Thomas, 28, 78
Baton Rouge, Battle of, 63–66
Baton Rouge, La., 60, 63–66
Beaufort, S.C., 28, 49, 50, 106, 107
Beaumont, Tex., 42, 43
Beauregard, P. G. T., 19, 52, 57, 71, 80, 108
Bell, Henry H., 84, 85
Benham, Henry, 66
Bermuda, 104, 105, 110, 160n12
Berry, Basil, 99
Biological warfare: by Confederates, 103–6, 108–9, 115
with yellow fever, 103–6, 115, 159n4
Blackburn, Luke Pryor, following p. 71, 104–6, 108–9, 159n4
Blacks. See African Americans
Blair, Montgomery, 109–10
Blockade by Union Navy, 31, 34, 39, 85–87, 102, 109–14, 117
Blockade-runners, 47, 51, 104, 110–11, 114, 115, 160n12
Blunt, James, 89
Booth, John Wilkes, 158n16
Boyd, Louis, 86
Brackett, Charles, 31
Bradley, James, 99
Bragg, Braxton, 60–61, 88
Bragg, Josephine, 27
Bragg, Junius, 27, 94–95
Breckinridge, John C., 64–65, 150n6
Brinton, John H., 24
Bronchitis, 22, 129
Brownsville, Tex., 39, 115
Brush, Daniel, 11–12
Buckner, Louisa, 109–10
Buell, Don Carlos, 55
Butler, Benjamin F.: attitude of, toward disease-related casualties, 116
Banks as replacement for, in New Orleans, 81
and Battle of Baton Rouge, 65–66
and black soldiers in New Orleans, 62
and canal projects, 59, 113
and Carolina’s Outer Banks, 67
diseases suffered by troops of, 58
New Orleans occupation by, 36–39, 54, 62, 98, 145n5
political cartoon on, following p. 71;
quarantine and sanitation measures in New Orleans, 38–39, 54, 98, 114, 145n5
and Union officers’ fear of yellow fever, 26
Cairo, Ill., 24, 25, 29
Callejon, Señor Juan, 38
Calomel (mercury), 33, 34
Camp fever, 68
Camp Michigan, Va., 22
Camp Moore, La., 64
Camp Parapet, La., 58
Camp Smith, Va., 22–23
Canby, Edward R. S., 93, 101
Caribbean, 15, 38, 45, 47, 51, 104, 105, 120, 160n12
Carrollton, La., 58
Castleman, Alfred, 26
Castor oil, 34
Catarrh, 22, 69, 129
Champion’s Hill, Battle of, 78
Chancellorsville, Battle of, 80
Charleston, S.C.: blockade-runners in, 114
defense of, 80
Hunter’s abandonment of campaign against, 66–67
malaria in, 67, 70
Mitchel’s plans for harassment of, 48
mosquitoes in, 67
nuns from, 52
yellow fever in, 16, 53, 66–67, 107, 108, 115
Chase, Salmon P., 62
Chewalla, Tenn., 56
Chicago Times, 77
Chickamauga, Battle of, 88
Chloroform, 159–60n9
Cholera, 6
Cinchona bark, 60, 83
Cincinnati, 32
Civil War: African American enlistment during, 61–62, 80–81, 119
Anaconda Plan during, 19, 54
casualties of, 1–2, 7, 19, 21, 55, 91
chronology of, 131–35
disease-related fatalities during generally, 2, 7, 19, 21, 116
and emancipation of slaves, 61–62, 152n21
and epidemiological history, xi-xii, 7, 118–19
films portraying, 118–19
and Lee’s surrender at Appomattox, 93
Union naval blockade during, 31, 34, 39, 85–87, 102, 109–14
western theater of, 88–98, 101–2. See also specific battles, campaigns, and generals
Civilians. See Northern civilians
Southern civilians
Clarendon, Ark., 89–90, 94–95
Clark, John C., 85
Clarke, John H., 84
Cleary, William, 106
Colorado, 85
Connecticut military units, 68
Ninth Infantry, 59
Fifteenth, 106
Consumption, 99
Cook, Joseph J., 40–41
Corinth, Miss., 55, 56–57, 75–76
Cornick, W. F., 33
Cornwallis, Lord, 72
Corps d’Afrique, Seventeenth Regiment, 82
Crocker, Frederick W., 43–45, 147n11
Crocker, George P., 46
Cuba, 38, 45, 47, 117, 120
Cult of domesticity, 110
Cumming, Alfred, 82–83
Cumming, Kate, 57
Dacotah, 46
Davidson, John W., 89
Davis, Charles, 60, 75
Davis, Jefferson: and biological warfare, 106, 108
and death of wife Sarah, 9–11, 138n3
and defense of Rich-mond, 68–69, 70
malaria suffered by, 9, 138n3
and sickly season in South, 116
Davis, Sarah Knox, 9–11, 19, 138n3
DDT, 118
De Rosset clan, 51
De Soto, 99
De Valls Bluff, Ark., 90, 91, 93
USS Delaware, 47
Dengue fever, 46, 47, 59, 98
Developing countries, 118
Diarrhea: in Arkansas, 68, 92
and black soldiers, 82, 99
and Civil War soldiers generally, 2, 21, 22, 23, 55, 56, 119
fatalities from, 2, 29–30
in Illinois, 25
in Louisiana, 58, 64
medical complications of malaria combined with, 2, 29–30, 32, 45, 56, 74, 101
in Mississippi, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84
in Missouri, 25
and Peninsular Campaign, 73–74
statistics on, 69, 73–74, 83, 92, 129, 130n;
in Virginia, 23, 73–74
Dickens, Charles, 12, 24
Dickson, James, 51–52
Diseases: of black soldiers generally, 82, 99
as caused by imbalance in body, 4, 5–6, 23
causes of, 4, 5–6, 10, 23, 79, 82–83
of Civil War soldiers generally, 2, 21–35, 55–57, 69, 74, 83, 99, 129–30
fatalities caused by, during Civil War generally, 2, 7, 19, 21
“malingering” or feigning illness, 68, 142n1
statistics on specific diseases, 129–30. See also Malaria
Yellow fever
and other diseases
Dix (businessman), 52
Domesticity, cult of, 110
Drane, Robert, 51
Dropsy, 99
Dry Tortugas Islands, 46, 47, 98
Dysentery: in Arkansas, 68, 91, 93
causes of, 59
and Civil War soldiers, 22, 25, 55, 56, 119
fatalities from, 2
medical complications of malaria combined with, 56
in Mississippi, 57, 59
statistics on, 69, 129, 130n;
symptoms of, 2
in Virginia during Peninsular Campaign, 74
Eickelberg, John, 97
Elmore’s regiment, 43, 97
Emancipation of slaves, 61–62, 152n21
Emerson, John Sherman, 78–79
Epidemics. See Yellow fever
Epidemiological history, xi-xii, 7, 118–20
Estrella, 84–85
Ether, 159–60n9
Etter, L. L., 64
Evans, Nathan G., 66
Farragut, David: and Galveston, 97
Mobile attack proposed by, 59
in Mobile Bay, 101
New Orleans captured by, 36, 40, 55, 58, 86
on Texas coast, 39–41, 45
and Vicksburg campaign, 58–62, 150n14
Fenn, Elizabeth, 6
Fish, John, 82
CSS Florida, 47
Florida: dengue fever in, 98
malaria in, 13–14, 70, 112, 120
quarantines in, 45, 85–86
secession of, 45
Seminole Indians in, 120
yellow fever in, 32, 33
, 39, 45–47, 54, 85, 98–100
Foltz, Jonathan M., 59
Fort Brown, Tex., 39–40
Fort Fisher, N.C., 108
Fort Gibson, Ark., 14
Fort Jackson, La., 81
Fort Jefferson, Fla., 46, 98, 158n16
Fort Sabine, Tex., 43
Fort St. Philip, La., 81
Fort Scott, Ga., 14
Fort Taylor, Fla., 45
Forten, Charlotte, 49
Fortress Monroe, Va., 74
Foster, John, 53
“Fowler’s Solution” (arsenic), 83, 85
French, Henry, 39–40, 45, 75
Frink, C. S., 100
Fugitive Slave Laws, 18
Fulton, John, 29
Gage, William, 46
Galveston, Tex.: blockade-runners in, 114
lawlessness in, 97
Magruder’s recapture of, for Confederacy, 41, 95–96
quarantine and sanitation measures in, 96, 98
Renshaw’s capture of, 40–42, 95
yellow fever in, 17, 40, 95–98, 101, 115, 117
Gangrene, 21
Gastrointestinal ailments, 2, 3, 93, 129–30. See also Diarrhea
Dysentery
Georgia: malaria in, 12, 14, 70, 100
mosquitoes in, 70, 100
yellow fever in, 16, 20
German immigrants, 16, 96, 97
Gettysburg, Battle of, 80, 87, 88, 116
Gibbs, B. F., 85
Gillis, John, 85
Gilman, Henry, 33 Glory, 119
Goshorn, Rev. J. M., 97
Grant, Ulysses S.: abandonment of supply lines by, 77–78, 80–81
and Arkansas campaign, 88–89
attitude of, toward disease-related casualties, 114, 116
and Confederate invasion of Missouri, 92
malaria affecting troops of, 113–14
medical staff of, 113–14
movement of, toward Pittsburgh Landing, 55
and quinine supply, 78, 87
and Union occupation forces in New Bern and Wilmington, 108
and Union victories in Mississippi and Louisiana generally, 86, 92
Vicksburg siege by, 28, 30, 58–59, 77–80, 82–83
Grant, W. T., 112
Greensboro, N.C., 53
Hadley, John V., 108
Haemagogus mosquitoes, 141n25
Halleck, Henry W.: on abandonment of Helena, Ark., 94
on black troops, 81
on health of Union troops, 48
military strategy of, affected by southern diseases, 71, 75–76, 94
and Peninsular Campaign, 75–76
refusal of, to pursue Beauregard into Mississippi, 71
in Tennessee, 55–58
and western theater, 88, 94
Hammond, William, 81, 86–87
Hand, D. W., 33, 68, 106
Harper’s Weekly, 38, following p. 71
Harris, D. B., 108
Harrison’s Landing, Va., 75–76
Mosquito Soldiers Page 24
