9 S. Harpal Singh, “Gonds on the Path of Progress,” Hindu, April 20, 2009; N. S. Saksena, India, Towards Anarchy, 1967–1992 (New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1993), 76.
10 “Maoists Target Jawans Again,” Hindustan Times, April 5, 2010.
11 “Andhra Pradesh Receives 27% Excess Rain During Monsoon,” Hindu Business Line, July 27, 2010.
12 Orville Schell, “The Message from the Glaciers,” New York Review of Books, May 27, 2010.
13 Z. W. Kundzewicz et al., “Freshwater Resources and Their Management,” Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. M. L. Parry et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 187, available at www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter3.pdf. Estimates are that 120 million to 1.2 billion people in Asia will face increased water stresses by the mid-2020s.
14 James Lamont et al., “India Widens Climate Rift with West,” Financial Times, July 23, 2009.
15 Some scientists predict that by the end of the century, India will experience a three- to five-degree Celsius temperature increase and with it a 20 percent rise in summer monsoon rainfall.
16 Dennis C. Blair, “Annual Threat Assessment of the US Intelligence Community” (testimony before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, February 2, 2010).
17 Schell, “The Message from the Glaciers.”
18 Kundzewicz et al., “Freshwater Resources and Their Management, 493.
19 Emily Wax, “Global Warming Threatens to Dry Up Ganges,” Washington Post, June 24, 2007.
20 That characterization came from Charles Kennel, senior strategist at the University of California, San Diego, Sustainability Solutions Institute and former director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Cited in Stephen Leahy, “Climate Change: Snow Cover Turning to Lake in the Himalayas,” Inter Press Service, May 7, 2009.
21 Aiguo Dai, Taotao Qian, and Kevin E. Trenberth, “Changes in Continental Freshwater Discharge from 1948–2004,” National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, November 18, 2008; also personal communication from Dr. Aiguo Dai of the National Center for Atmospheric Research.
22 “Water Levels Dropping in Some Major Rivers As Global Climate Changes,” University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, April 21, 2009, www.ucar.edu/news/releases/2009/flow.jsp (cited on May 5, 2009). National Center for Atmospheric Research scientists “examined stream flow from 1948 to 2004 [and] found significant changes in about one-third of the world’s largest rivers. Of those, rivers with decreased flow outnumbered those with increased flow by a ratio of about 2.5 to 1. Several of the rivers channeling less water serve large populations, including the Yellow River in northern China, the Ganges in India, the Niger in West Africa, and the Colorado in the southwestern United States. In contrast, the scientists reported greater stream flow over sparsely populated areas near the Arctic Ocean, where snow and ice are rapidly melting.”
23 “Water Levels Dropping in Some Major Rivers As Global Climate Changes,” University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, April 21, 2009, www.ucar.edu/news/releases/2009/flow.jsp (cited on May 5, 2009). National Center for Atmospheric Research scientists “examined stream flow from 1948 to 2004, found significant changes in about one-third of the world’s largest rivers. Of those, rivers with decreased flow outnumbered those with increased flow by a ratio of about 2.5 to 1. Several of the rivers channeling less water serve large populations, including the Yellow River in northern China, the Ganges in India, the Niger in West Africa, and the Colorado in the southwestern United States. In contrast, the scientists reported greater stream flow over sparsely populated areas near the Arctic Ocean, where snow and ice are rapidly melting.”
24 David Mosse, “Rule and Representation: Transformations in the Governance of the Water Commons in British South India,” Journal of Asian Studies 65, no. 1 (2006): 61–90: 63.
25 Karl Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957), 15. Wittfogel’s hydraulic despotism is an extension of Marx’s conception of an “Asiatic mode of production.”
26 Murray J. Leaf, “Irrigation and Authority in Rajasthan,” Ethnology 31, no. 2 (April 1992): 115–132.
27 Kathleen Gough, “Modes of Production in Southern India,” Economic and Political Weekly 15, no. 5/7 (February 1980): 337–364; M. J. K. Thavaraj, “The Concept of Asiatic Mode of Production: Its Relevance to Indian History,” Social Scientist 12, no. 7 (July 1984): 26–34.
28 Mosse, “Rule and Representation,” 65.
29 Amy Waldman, “Debts and Drought Drive India’s Farmers to Despair,” New York Times, June 6, 2004.
30 Anuradha Mittal, “Harvest of Suicides: How Global Trade Rules Are Driving Indian Farmers to Despair,” Earth Island Journal (March 22, 2008); also see Somini Sengupta, “On India’s Despairing Farms, a Plague of Suicide,” New York Times, September 19, 2006.
31 Sengupta, “On India’s Despairing Farms.”
32 E. Revathi, “Farmers’ Suicide,” Economic and Political Weekly 33, no. 20 (May 16–22, 1998): 1207. These amounts are calculated at thirty-six rupees to the dollar, which was the rate of exchange when the article quoted was written.
33 “Climate Change Impacts in Drought and Flood Affected Areas: Case Studies in India South Asia Region” (India Country Management Unit, Sustainable Development Department, Social, Environment and Water Resources Management Unit, Document of the World Bank, Report No. 43946-IN, June 1, 2008), 40.
34 W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
35 Bernhard Glaeser, ed. The Green Revolution Revisited: Critique and Alternatives (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987).
36 K. N. Ninan and H. Chandrashekar, “Green Revolution, Dryland Agriculture and Sustainability: Insights from India,” Economic and Political Weekly 28, no. 12/13 (March 20–27, 1993): A2–A7.
37 Ernest Feder, “McNamara’s Little Green Revolution: World Bank Scheme for Self-Liquidation of Third World Peasantry,”‘ Economic and Political Weekly 11, no. 14 (April 3, 1976).
38 A. K. Chakravarti, “Green Revolution in India,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 63, no. 3 (September 1973): 319–330. For critiques of the Green Revolution, see France Moore Lappe, Aid As Obstacle (Oakland, CA: Food First Books, 1980).
39 Vamsi Vakulabharanam, “Immiserizing Growth: Globalization and Agrarian Change in Telangana Between 1985 and 2000” (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Economics Department, 2004).
40 Vakulabharanam, “Immiserizing Growth.”
41 Vakulabharanam, “Immiserizing Growth,” iv–vii. Or, to quote Vakulabharanam: “First, even as the prices of market-oriented crops have declined between 1991 and 2000 (during the phase of globalization), the planted area in the output of these crops has been rising rapidly. Second, between 1985 and 2000 the annual exponential growth rate of real agricultural output in the telethon region of South India has been more than 4%, higher than much of the developing world during the same period, even as a majority of the farming population has undergone significant income/consumption losses, tragically manifested in the suicides of more than a thousand farmers.”
42 Vakulabharanam, “Immiserizing Growth,” 107.
43 Lakshman Yapa, “What Are Improved Seeds? An Epistemology of the Green Revolution,” Economic Geography 69, no. 3, Environment and Development, Part 1 (July 1993): 254–273.
44 Ramachandra Guha, “A War in the Heart of India,” The Nation, June 27, 2007; “Naxalites Abandon Train, Passengers Unharmed,” Hindu, March 15, 2006; Sonali Das, “Naxals Release Passengers on Train,” Times of India, April 22, 2009; Mehul Srivastava, “Maoists in India Blow Up Pipelines, Putting $78 Billion at Risk,” Bloomberg, July 29, 2010.
45 For example, see Air Commander Arjun Subramaniam, “Air Power to Fight Guerrilla War,” S
ify News, February 13, 2009. This piece ran in Indian papers and can be found online at www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-07-29/Maoists-in-india-blow-up-pipelines-as-78-billion-in-resources-threatened.html.
46 On the early days of the Greyhounds, see K. Balagopal, “Herald the Hunting Dogs That Are Grey in Colour,” Economic and Political Weekly 23, no. 28 (July 9, 1988); M. Shatrugna, “NTR and the Naxalites,” Economic and Political Weekly 24, no. 28 (July 15, 1989).
47 Jason Motlagh, “India’s Maoists Shift to Attacks on Police,” Washington Times, November 22, 2007; Jason Motlagh, “The Maoists in the Forest: Tracking India’s Separatist Rebels,” Virginia Quarterly Review 84, no. 3 (July 1, 2008): 102–129.
48 “Guns Are Again Booming in Andhra Pradesh,” Indo-Asian News Service, April 3, 2005.
49 Sumanta Banerjee, “Naxalites: Time for Introspection,” Economic and Political Weekly 38, no. 44 (November 1–7, 2003): 4635–4636: 4635.
50 Omer Farooq, “India’s Andhra Pradesh State Announces Cease-Fire Against Communist Rebels,” Associated Press, June 16, 2004.
51 Rakesh K. Singh, “New Centre Plan to Solve Naxal Issue,” World News Connection, August 6, 2006; “On the development front, the centre has decided to allocate Rs 500 crores [$116 million] during the 11th Five-Year Plan for development of infrastructure in Naxal-hit areas. Emphasis will be laid on upgrading existing roads and tracks in inaccessible areas and securing camping grounds at strategic locations.” Devyani Srivastava, “Terrorism in India (Jan–Mar 2008),” IPCS (Indian Government) Special Report No. 54, June 2008.
52 “Guns Are Again Booming in Andhra Pradesh.” Two other poets, Gaddar and Kalyan Rao, were also on political murder charges.
53 “Salva-Judum Men Go After Maoist Sympathizers,” Hindu, March 13, 2006.
54 Anshuman G. Dutta, “Holding State to Ransom India: ‘Spread’ of Left-Wing Extremism Prompts States to Raise Commando Outfits,” World News Connection, May 21, 2006.
55 “Salva Judum ‘Massacred’ Chhattisgarh Tribals: Panel,” Hindu, January 28, 2009.
56 “Salva Judum ‘Massacred’ Chhattisgarh Tribals.”
57 Farhan Bokhari and James Lamont, “An Altered Reality,” Financial Times, May 12, 2009.
58 Admittedly, this class, or clique, of superrich took a serious hit in 2009 as the Indian economy finally caught the cold of economic decline that had started in the West. Naazneen Karmali, “India’s Billionaire Drop-Offs,” Forbes.com, March 11, 2009, www.forbes.com/2009/03/11/india-financial-loss-billionaires-2009-billionaires-india.html.
Chapter 13
1 For an overview of that literature, see Joan Neff Gurney and Kathleen J. Tierney, “Relative Deprivation and Social Movements: A Critical Look at Twenty Years of Theory and Research,” The Sociological Quarterly 23, no. 1 (winter 1982): 33–47. On violence in cities, see Saskia Sassen, “When the City Itself Becomes a Technology of War,” Theory, Culture & Society 27, no. 6 (December 17, 2010).
2 Celia Landmann Szwarcwald et al. “Income Inequality and Homicide Rates in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,” American Journal of Public Health 89, no. 6 (June 1999): 849.
3 “Rio Drug Gangs Battle Police, 13 People Killed,” Reuters, November 24, 2010.
4 “Rains, Floods in São Paulo Kill 64,” Agence France-Presse, January 29, 2010.
5 “Lula Skips G20 Summit due to Deadly Brazil Floods,” Times of Oman (Reuters) June 27, 2010; Felipe Dana, “Brazil: Population of Small Village Survived Massive Flooding by Clinging to Jack Fruit Trees,” Canadian Press, June 24, 2010.
6 G. Magrin et al., “Latin America,” in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vuln erability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. M. L. Parry et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), Section 13.2.2, “Weather and Climate Stresses.”
7 Anthony Pereira, “Brazil’s Agrarian Reform: Democratic Innovation or Oligarchic Exclusion Redux?” Latin American Politics and Society 45, no. 2 (summer 2003): 41–65: 42.
8 Gary Duffy, “Changing Times for Brazil’s Landless,” BBC News, January 23, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7845611.stm.
9 F. E. Wagner and John O. Ward, “Urbanization and Migration in Brazil,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 39, no. 3 (July 1980): 249–259: 256.
10 Wagner and Ward, “Urbanization and Migration in Brazil,” 249.
11 Anthony W. Pereira, “The Dialectics of the Brazilian Military Regime’s Political Trials,” Luso-Brazilian Review 41, no. 2 (2005): 162–183.
12 In English, see Brazil Archdiocese of São Paulo, A Shocking Report on the Pervasive Use of Torture by Brazilian Military Governments, 1964–1979, Secretly Prepared by the Archdiocese of São Paulo, ed. Joan Dassin, trans. Jaime Wright (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998).
13 Ben Penglase, “The Bastard Child of the Dictatorship: The Comando Vermelho and the Birth of ‘Narco-Culture’ in Rio de Janeiro,” Luso-Brazilian Review 45, no. 1 (2008): 118–145: 125.
14 Penglase, “The Bastard Child.”
15 Penglase, “The Bastard Child”; Luke Dowdney, Children of the Drug Trade: A Case Study of Children in Organized Armed Violence in Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: 7 Letras, 2003); Louis Kontos and David C. Brotherton, eds., Encyclopedia of Gangs (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2007), 16–18.
16 Enrique “Desmond” Arias, Drugs and Democracy in Rio de Janeiro: Traff icking, Social Networks, and Public Security (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); also see Carlos Amorim, Comando Vermelho, a história secreta do crime organizado (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Record, 1993); William da Silva, Quatrocentos contra um (Rio de Janeiro: Vozes, 1991); Dowdney, Children of the Drug Trade; Aziz Filho and Francisco Alves Filho, Paraíso armado inter-pretações da violência no Rio de Janeiro (São Paulo: Editora Garçoni, 2003); Michel Misse, Crime e violência no Brazil contemporâneo (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Lumen Juris, 2006).
17 James Brooke, “Brazil Writhes Under Debt Burden,” Miami Herald, February 7, 1983. An excellent critic of neolibralism in Brazil is offered by James F. Petras and Henry Veltmeyer, Cardoso’s Brazil: A Land for Sale (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003). “March by São Paulo Jobless Turns to Looting Riot; One Dead,” Miami Herald, April 6, 1983.
18 Renato P. Colistete, “Revisiting Import-Substituting Industrialization in Brazil: Productivity Growth and Technological Learning in the Post-War Years” (draft paper prepared for the Conference “Latin America, Globalization, and Economic History,” University of California, Los Angeles, April 24–25, 2009), 7, available online at www.international.ucla.edu/economichistory/Summerhill/Colistete.pdf.
19 Colistete, “Revisiting Import-Substituting Industrialization in Brazil,” 32.
20 David Harvey, “Neo-Liberalism As Creative Destruction,” Geograf iska Annaler 88, no. 52 (June 1, 2006): 145–158: 148.
21 Philip Armstrong, Andrew Glyn, and John Harrison, Capitalism Since 1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 155. For the quintessential story of successful state-led capitalist development, see Alice Amsden, Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
22 Juliet B. Schor, The Overworked America: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 111.
23 Charles Sable quoted in Bennett Harrison and Barry Bluestone, The Great U-Turn: Corporate Restructuring and the Polarizing of America (Boulder, CO: Basic Books, 1990), 10.
24 On excess capacity or overaccumulation, see Armstrong, Glyn, and Harrison, Capitalism Since 1945, esp. ch. 11.
25 Brooke, “Brazil Writhes Under Debt Burden.”
26 Harrison and Bluestone, The Great U-Turn, 7; see also Norman Glickman, “Cities and the International Division of Labor,” in The Capitalist City, ed. Peter Michael Smith (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987), 71.
27 Samuel Bowles, David M Gordon, and Thomas E. Weisskopf, After the Waste Land: A Democratic Economics for the Year 2000 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990), 45. Se
e Figure 4.4, “Declining Profitability After the Mid Sixties”; Andrew Glyn et al., “The Rise and Fall of the Golden age,” in The Golden Age of Capitalism: Reinterpreting the Post-War Experience, ed. Stephen A. Marglin and Juliet B. Schor (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 77, figure 2.10.
28 John Morris, “Markets Recover from Losses, but Outlook Is Grim,” American Banker, December 6, 1982.
29 Paul Volker is quoted by Steven Rattner, “Volker Asserts U.S. Must Trim Living Standards,” New York Times, October 18, 1979, A1.
30 George Hanc, An Examination of the Banking Crises of the 1980s and Early 1990s, vol. 1 of History of the 80s (Arlington, VA: FDIC Public Information Center, 1999), 199.
31 Andres Oppenheimer, “Recession, Debt Batter Americas,” Miami Herald, April 18, 1983.
32 “Brazil Inflation Sets a Record,” New York Times, December 29, 1989.
33 James Brooke, “Growth of Southern Giants Stifled by Austerity Plans,” Miami Herald, April 18, 1983.
34 Oppenheimer, “Recession, Debt.”
35 Juan de Onis, “Brazil Wants New Loans, Not Outside Pressures,” Los Angeles Times, June 23, 1986.
36 Mark Weisbrot, “Quem será capaz de levar o país adiante?” Folha de São Paulo (Brazil), August 27, 2010.
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