69. Rolf Wagenfuhr in Viertelsjahreshefte zur Konjunkturforschung, Sonderheft 31 (Berlin, 1933), 18.
70. P. A. Khromov, Ekonomicheskoe razvitie Rossii v XIX-XX vekakh (Moscow, 1950), 452–54, 459, 462.
71. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 380.
72. P. A. Zaionchkovskii, Samoderzhavie i russkaia armiia na rubezhe XIX-XX stoletii (Moscow, 1973). 31.
73. Hans-Peter Stein in Forschungen, XIII (1967), 468. The text of the military oath is in Polnoe Sobranie Zakonov, 3rd ed., XIV (St. Petersburg, 1894), No. 11, 014.
74. Zaionchkovskii, Samoderzhavie i russkaia armiia, 119, 197–99.
75. A. I. Denikin, Staraia armiia (Paris, 1929), 7.
76. Zaionchkovskii, Samoderzhavie i russkaia armiia, 212.
77. Ibid., 221–23.
78. Matitiahu Mayzel in Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique, XVI, No. 3/4 (1975), 297–321.
79. Denikin, Staraia armiia, 13.
80. A. I. Denikin, Put’ russkogo ofitsera (New York, 1953), 121–22.
81. Stein in Forschungen, 474–79.
82. On this group see Pipes, Russia, Chap. 7.
83. Ibid., 178–79.
84. Rostislav Fadeev, Russkoe obshchestvo v nastoiaschem i budushchem (chem nam byt’?) (St. Petersburg, 1874); A. D. Pazukhin in R V, No. 175 (January, 1885), 5–58; A. I. Elishev (A. I. Bukeevskii), Dvorianskoe delo (Moscow, 1898).
85. Roberta T. Manning, The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government (Princeton, N.J., 1982), passim.
86. Vitte, Samoderzhavie i zemstvo, 168.
87. Petergofskoe soveshchanie o proekte Gosudartvennoi Dumy (Berlin, n.d.), 149–50.
88. Manning, Crisis, 32–33.
89. Seymour Becker, Nobility and Privilege in Late Imperial Russia (De Kalb, 111., 1985), 28.
90. Ivan Ozerov in Josef Melnik, Russen über Russland (Frankfurt, 1906), 214.
91. A. M. Anfimov and I. F. Makarov in ISSSR, No. 1 (1974), 85.
92. Leroy-Beaulieu, Empire of the Tsars, III, 512–13.
93. Ibid., 182–83.
94. On this subject, see John S. Curtiss, Church and State in Russia (New York, 1972), Chap. 3.
95. Ibid., 130.
96. Ibid., 182–83.
97. Ibid., 339–40.
98. Leroy-Beaulieu, Empire of the Tsars, II, 91.
Chapter 3
1.
Theodore Shanin,
The Awkward Class
(Oxford, 1972), 64–68, 90–91. Cf. Stepniak [S. M. Kravchinskii],
The Russian Peasantry
(New York, 1888), 169.
2.
N. A. Troinitskii, ed.,
Pervaia Vseobshchaia Perepis’ Naseleniia Rossiiskoi Imperii 1897 g.: Obshchii Svod
, I (St. Petersburg, 1905), 16.
3.
Stepniak,
Russian Peasantry
, 79, 81.
4.
Jack Goody
et al.
, eds.,
Family and Inheritance
(Cambridge, 1976), 1.
5.
Tadashi Fukutake,
Asian Rural Society: China, India, Japan
(Seattle-London, 1967), 4, 24.
6.
P. N. Pershin,
Zemel’noe ustroistvo dorevoliutsionnoi derevni
, I (Moscow-Voronezh, 1928), 148–49.
7.
Brogkauz & Efron
, XXIX, 384.
8.
S. M. Dubrovskii,
Stolypinskaia zemel’naia reforma
(Moscow, 1963), 189, 191.
9.
V. A. Aleksandrov,
Sel’skaia obshchina v Rossii
(Moscow, 1976), 178–86, 314–15.
10. N. P. Oganovskii and A. V. Chaianov, eds., Statisticheskii spravochnikpo agrarnomu voprosu, Vyp. I (Moscow, 1917), Table III, 10–11.
11. Brogkauz & Efron, XXIX, 382–83.
12. N. Rosnitskii, Litso derevni (Moscow-Leningrad, 1926), 16–18.
13. A. S. Ermolov, Nash zemel’nyi vopros (St. Petersburg, 1906), 66.
14. Ibid., 72–75.
15. S. I. Bruk and V. M. Kabuzan in ISSSR, No. 3 (1980), 83–84.
16. Stepniak, Russian Peasantry, 147–48.
17. P. A. Khromov, Ekonomicheskoe razvitie Rossii v XIX-XX vekakh (Moscow, 1950), 439; P. I. Liashchenko, Istoriia narodnogo khoziaistva SSSR, II (Moscow, 1952), 163.
18. A. M. Anfimov, Zemel’naia arenda v Rossii v nachale XX veka (Moscow, 1961), 15.
19. A. G. Rashin, Naselenie Rossii za 100 let (1811–1913 gg.) (Moscow, 1956), 125, 129.
20. Joseph Bradley in Russian History, VI, Pt. 1 (1979), 22.
21. Rashin, Naselenie Rossii, 135–36.
22. Harold Frederic, The New Exodus (New York-London, 1892), 50.
23. James Y. Simms, Jr., in SR, XXXVI, No. 3 (1977), 377–98.
24. Ibid., 385.
25. See above, note 13.
26. Rashin, Naselenie Rossii, 208.
27. G. von Schulze-Gävernitz, Volkswirtschaftliche Studien aus Russland (Leipzig, 1899), 146–65.
28. Ibid., 131.
29. See my Social-Democracy and the St. Petersburg Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass., 1963).
30. A notable exception is an article by C. Zajtzeff [K. Zaitsev] in Jahrbücher für Kultur und Geschichte der Slaven, Neue Folge, X, No. 3/4 (1934), 421–53.
31. The most important literary depictions of the Russian peasant are: A. N. Engelgardt, Iz derevni; Chekhov’s short stories; Ivan Bunin, The Village (Derevnia); and Maxim Gorky’s O russkom krest’ianstve.
32. Notably S. V. Pakhman’s, Obychnoe grazhdanskoe pravo v Rossii, 2 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1877–79), and Alexandra Efimenko’s Issledovaniia narodnoi zhizni, I: Obychnoe pravo (Moscow, 1884).
33. M. Ia. Fenomenov, Sovremennaia derevnia, II (Leningrad-Moscow, 1925), 95.
34. “Christianity and Patriotism” in Complete Works, Leo Wiener, tr., XX (Boston, 1905), 419–20.
35. A. I. Denikin, Staraia armiia (Paris, 1929), 50.
36. Ibid., 50–51.
37. KA, No. 1/8 (1925), 53.
38. Stepniak, Russian Peasantry, 229–30.
39. Cited by Jeffrey Brooks in Wm. M. Todd III, ed., Literature and Society in Imperial Russia (Stanford, Calif., 1978), 124.
40. I wan Oserov [Ozerov] in Josef Melnik, Russen über Russland (Frankfurt, 1906), 215; John S. Curtiss, Church and State in Russia (New York, 1972), 182–83.
41. Jeffrey Brooks in T. Emmons and W. S. Vucinich, eds., Zemstvo in Russia (Cambridge, 1982), 243–44; Ben Eklof in Journal of Social History, XIV, No. 3 (1981), 366.
42. Dietrich Geyer, Der Russische Imperialismus (Göttingen, 1977), 53–54.ss
43. Stepniak, Russian Peasantry, 144.
44. A. Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians, II (New York-London, 1898), 7.
45. K. Zaitsev, I. A. Bunin (Berlin, [1933]), 101–2.
46. “Vlasl’ zemli,” in Gleb Uspenskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, VIII (Moscow, 1949), 25.
47. E.g., Efimenko, Issledovaniia, I, 136–38.
48. Bohdan Kistiakovskii in Vekhi (Moscow, 1909), 143.
49. Efimenko, Issledovaniia, I, 174–75.
50. Stepniak, Russian Peasantry, 86.
51. A. N. Engelgardt, Iz derevni (Moscow, 1987), 430–31.
52. G. B. Sliozberg, Dela minuvshikh dnei, II (Paris, 1933), 248–49.
53. Zajtseff in Jahrbücher für Kultur, 444–45.
54. Stepniak, Russian Peasantry, 6. The identical point is made by A. Vasilchikov in Zemlevladenie i zemledelie v Rossii idrugikh evropeiskikh gosudarstvakh, I (St. Petersburg, 1876), 297–98.
55. Efimenko, Issledovaniia, I, 143–45.
56. Zajtseff in Jahrbücher für Kultur, 440–41; Fenomenov, Sovremennaia derevniia, 93.
57. K. V. Chistov, Russkie narodnye sotsial’no-utopicheskie legendy (Moscow, 1967).
58. Engelgardt, Iz derevni, 540–41.
59. Ibid, 534; cf. Efimenk
o, Issledovaniia, I, 141.
60. Efimenko, Issledovaniia, 141–42.
61. Lev Tolstoi, “Zapisnaia knizhka” (1865), in his Polnoe Sobrame Sochinenii, XLVIII (Moscow, 1952), 85.
62. Zajtseff in Jahrbücher für Kultur, 422.
63. Engelgardt, Iz derevni, 540, 542.
64. Cited in Leroy-Beaulieu, Empire of the Tsars, II, 115.
65. Zajtseff in Jahrbücher für Kultur, 436–37.
66. Jeffrey Brooks in Todd, Literature and Society, 97–150.
67. Ibid., 149–50.
68. J. C. Carothers in Psychiatry, XXI (1959), 317–18.
69. Eklof in Journal of Social History, 376.
70. Rus’, No. 191 (August 17/30, 1905), 2.
Chapter 4
1.
Jacques Ellul,
Autopsie de la Révolution
(Paris, 1969), 56. Albert Camus draws a similar distinction in
The Rebel
.
2.
Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy
, 3rd ed. (New York, 1950), 145.
3.
Ferdinand Tönnies,
Community and Society
(East Lansing, Mich., 1957), 42–43.
4.
Vilfredo Pareto,
The Mind and Society
(New York, 1935), No. 2,034 and No. 2,044n.
5.
Etienne Gilson and Thomas Langan,
Modern Philosophy
(New York, 1963), 43.
6.
On this see Ernst Cassirer,
Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit
, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Berlin, 1911).
7.
Albert Keim,
Helvétius, Sa Vie et Son Oeuvre
(Paris, 1907), 316n., 336; also Ian Cumming,
Helvétius
(London, 1955), 17.
8.
Cited in Keim,
Helvétius
. 246.
9.
Ibid.
, 268.
10. C. A. Helvétius, De l’Esprit, or Essays on the Mind (London, 1810), 184, Essay II, Chap. 25.
11. Ibid., 187.
12. Ibid., 489, Essay IV, Chap. 17; cf. Mordecai Grossman, The Philosophy of Helvétius (New York, 1926), 74.
13. Elie Halévy, La Jeunesse de Bentham (Paris, 1901), cited in Grossman, Helvétius, 168.
14. Alfred Cobban and Robert A. Smith, eds., The Correspondence of Edmund Burke, VI (Cambridge, 1967), 47.
15. Elie Halévy, The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism (Boston, 1960), 20.
16. The Old Regime and the French Revolution, Pt. 3, Chap. 1.
17. A. Cochin, Les Sociétés de Pensée et la Démocratie (Paris, 1921), 5–6.
18. Ibid., 9–10, 15.
19. Maia Kaganskaia in 22 (Jerusalem), No. 59 (1988), 118; Christian Saves, La Signification de la Surenchère Linguistique dans la Phraséologie Bolchevique, Thèse pour le Doctorat, Université des Sciences Sociales, Toulouse I, 1986.
20. Karl Griewank, Der neuzeitliche Revolutsionsbegriff (Weimar, 1955), 14, 22, 24, 30.
21. Augustin Cochin, La Crise de VHistoire Révolutionnaire (Paris, 1909), 3.
22. A. Aulard, The French Revolution, III (New York, 1910), 86.
23. Cited in F. Furet, Penser la Révolution Française (Paris, 1983), 211m.
24. See the complaints of Bertrand de Jouvenel, Raymond Aron, and Karl Mannheim in George B. de Huszar, The Intellectuals (Glencoe, Ill., 1960), 3.
25. Schumpeter, Capitalism, 148–49.
26. Raymond Aron, The Opium of the Intellectuals (Garden City, N.Y., 1957), 203–4.
27. Cited in Huszar, Intellectuals, 367.
28. M. Bakunin “Gosudarstvennost’ i anarkhiia,” in Artur Lehning, ed., Archives Bakounine, III (Leiden, 1967), 150.
29. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Holy Family (Moscow, 1956), 174–76.
30. Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, I (Oxford, 1978), 143–44.
31. Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, Les Doctrines de Haine (Paris, [1902]), 8–9, 34–35.
32. L. Trotskii, Literatura i revoliutsiia, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1924), 192–94.
33. Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians, II (New York-London, 1898), 67.
34. On this group, see N. M. Pirumova, Zemskaia intelligentsiia i eë rol’ v obshchestvennoi bor’be (Moscow, 1986).
35. Richard Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Right (Cambridge, Mass., 1980), 79.
36. Jules Legras, Au Pays Russe (Paris, 1895), 356–57.
37. O. V. Aptekman, Obshchestvo “Zemlia i Volia” 70-kh godov (Petrograd, 1924), 145.
38. Lev Tikhomirov, Pochemu ia perestal byt’ revoliutsionerom (Moscow, 1895), 34–35.
39. Program of the People’s Will (1879), in S. S. Volk, ed., Revoliutsionnoe narodnichestvo 70-kh godov XIX veka, II (Moscow-Leningrad, 1965), 173.
40. K. Marks, F. Engel’s i revoliutsionnaia Rossiia (Moscow, 1967), 78–79.
41. Richard Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Left (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 50–51.
42. For its history, see Manfred Hildermeier, Die Sozialrevolutionäre Partei Russlands (Cologne-Vienna, 1978).
43. Ibid., 61–62.
44. Ibid., 65.
45. Protokoly pervogo s”ezda Partii Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov (Moscow, 1906), 360.
46. A. N. Spiridovich, Revoliutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii, II (Petrograd, 1916), 311–12; Hildermeier, Sozialrevolutionäre Partei, 136.
47. Cited in Hildermeier, Sozialrevolutionäre Partei, 112.
48. Ibid., 117.
49. On the SRs: Maureen Perrie in SS, XXIV, No. 2 (1972), 223–50; on the SDs: David Lane, The Roots of Russian Communism (Assen, 1969).
50. Hildermeier, Sozialrevolutionäre Partei, 252.
51. Perrie in SS, 249–50; Lane, Roots, 50.
52. In OD, III, Book 5 (St. Petersburg, 1914), 99–100.
53. RZ, XIII (1939), 124.
54. Charles E. Timberlake, ed., Essays on Russian Liberalism (Columbia, Mo., 1972), 11.
55. Terence Emmons in SR, No. 3 (1973), 461–90.
56. Shmuel Galai, The Liberation Movement in Russia, 1900–1905 (Cambridge, 1973).
57. V. V. Shelokhaev, Kadety (Moscow, 1983), 67–68, 84.
Chapter
5
1.
S. Iu. Vitte,
Vospominaniia
, III (Moscow, 1960), 296; cf. M. Szeftel,
The Russian Constitution of April
25,
1906
(Brussels, 1976), 33–35.
2.
Cited in G. A. Hosking,
The Russian Constitutional Experiment
(Cambridge, 1973), 92.
3.
Padenie
, V, 418.
4.
P. A. Tverskoi in
VE
, XLVII, No. 4 (April 1912), 188; V. I. Startsev,
Russkaia burzhuaziia i samoderzhavie v 1905–17 gg
. (Leningrad, 1977), 121.
5.
V. N. Kokovtsov,
Iz moego proshlogo
, I (Paris, 1933), 306.
6.
M. Baring,
A Year in Russia
(London, 1907), 213; S. S. Oldenburg,
Tsarstvovanie Imperatora Nikolaia II
, II (Munich, 1949), 5.
7.
On these groups, see V. Levitskii in
OD
, III, Book 5 (St. Petersburg, 1914), 347–469; and Hans Rogger in
California Slavic Studies
, III (1964) 66–94, and in
Journal of Modern History
, XXXVI, No. 4 (1964), 398–415.
8.
Testimony in
Padenie
, V, 378.
9.
Briefe Wilhelms II an den Zaren, 1894–1914
(Berlin, [1920?]), 376.
10. Introduction to La Chute du Régime Tsariste:
Interrogatoires (Paris, 1927), 36.
11. S. E. Kryzhanovskii, Vospominaniia (Berlin, [1938]), 123.
12. RM, No. 1 (January 1907), Pt. 2, 131.
13. The best study of the Fundamental Laws of 1906 is Szeftel’s Russian Constitution.
14. Guchkov in PN, No. 5,616 (August 9, 1936), 2.
15. N. P. Eroshkin, ed., Ocherki istorii gosudarstvennykh uchrezhdenii dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii (Moscow, 1960), 334.
16. The fullest collection of these laws is G. G. Savich, ed., Novyi gosudarstvennyi stroi Rossii (St. Petersburg, 1907).
17. On this subject, see V. M. Gessen, Iskliuchetel’noe polozhenie (St. Petersburg, 1908), and N. N. Polianskii, Tsarskie voennye sudy v bor’be s revoliutsei 1905–1907 gg. (Moscow, 1958), 8–42.
18. The Fundamental Laws of 1906 are translated, with commentaries, in Szeftel’s Russian Constitution.
19. Maklakov, Interrogatoires, 35.
20. Startsev, Russkaia burzhuaziia, 11–13; Hosking, Constitutional Experiment, 16–17.
21. Guchkov in PN, No. 5,616 (August 9, 1936), 2.
22. Kryzhanovskii, Vospominaniia, 81–82, 84–86.
23. V. A. Maklakov, Pervaia Gosudarstvennaia Duma (Paris, 1939), 59–117.
24. P. G. Kurlov, GibeF Imperatorskoi Rossii (Berlin, 1923), 66.
25. Manfred Hildermeier, Die Sozialrevolutionäre Partei Russlands (Köln-Wien, 1978), passim.
26. Sbornik rechei Petra Arkadevicha Stolypina (St. Petersburg, 1911), 9.
27. Gosudarstvennaia Duma, Stenograficheskie Otchëty: 1907, Sessiia II, Zasedanie 40-oe, II (St. Petersburg, 1907), 696.
28. Anna Geifman in Jahrbücher, XXXVI, No. 2 (1988), 250.
29. Ibid., 250–51.
30. Maklakov, Interrogatoires, 40.
31. H. Nicolson, Sir Arthur Nicolson, Bart. (London, 1930), 225.
32. “Witte und Stolypin” in P. R. Rohden and G. Ostrogorsky, eds., Menschen die Geschichte machten, III (Vienna, 1931), 268.
33. Tverskoi in VE, XLVII, No. 4 (April 1912), 186.
34. KA, No. 4/17 (1926), 81–90.
35. A. Izgoev, P. A. Stolypin: Ocherk zhizni i deiatel’nosti (Moscow, 1912), 14.
36. Report of 1904 in KA, No. 4/17 (1926), 84.
37. Struve in RM, No. 10 (October 1911), Pt. 2, 139–40; cf. Kokovtsov, Iz moego proshlogo, I, 205, and Izgoev, Stolypin, 67.
38. Kryzhanovskii, Vospominaniia, 127–39.
39. A. V. Zenkovskii, Pravda o Stolypine (New York, 1956), 73–113.
40. Byloe, No. 5/6 (1917), 212–27.
41. N. Savickij in Le Monde Slave, IV, No. 12 (1934), 381; Sbornik rechei Petra Arkadevicha Stolypina, 28.
42. Izgoev, Stolypin, 42, and Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (London, 1974), 305–6.
43. Text in A. K. Drezen, ed., Tsarizm v bor’be s revoliutsiei, 1905–07 (Moscow, 1936), 80–86.
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