by Don Norman
failure of new products, 272, 274
life cycle of, 294
stage gate methods, 234, 235
success of, 293–294
Prospective memory, 107–109
Prototyping, 222, 227–228, 235
Psychology, 27–73. See also Cognition
causal relations (blame), 59–65
cognition and emotion, 49–55.
See also Cognition; Emotion
falsely blaming self, 65–71
fundamental design principles and, 71–73
Gibsonian, 12
Gulfs of Evaluation and Execution, 38–40
human thought, 44–49
interplay with technology, 6–8
people as storytellers, 56–59
positive, 63–65
stages of action, 40–44, 55–56, 71–73, 172–173
The Psychology of Everyday Things (POET), xi, 283, 299–304
Punch (magazine), 270
Purchasers
designing for, 241
users vs., 117–118
See also Customers
Purchasing process, usability and, 117–118
Quality, focus on customer and, 264
Questioning, 46, 117, 226–227, 229, 230, 264, 286, 295, 310
QWERTY keyboard, 254, 266, 275–278, 318, 319. See also Keyboard
Radiation doses, sensibility checks and, 206
Radical innovation, 279–280, 281–282
Rasmussen, Jens, 179
Reading vs. listening, 267
Reason, James, 164, 170, 208
Recycling, 294
Reflection, 45
design and, 53–54
relation to visceral and behavioral response, 54–55
stages of action and, 55–56
Reflective problem solving, 46–47
Refrigerator temperature controls, conceptual model and, 28–31
Rehearsal of material, 96, 100–101
Reminders, 108–109
Reminding, strategies for, 106, 107–109, 110
Remington typewriter, 275, 276, 277
Remote controller, cultural effect on design of, 118, 119
Repetitive cycles of design, see spiral design
Resilience engineering, 211–213
Retention, memory and, 94
Retrieval, memory and, 97–98
Retrospective decision making, 183
Reversing action, see Undo
Rhyming, constraints of, 83
Root cause analysis, 42, 43–44, 164–165
Rote learning, 98
Royal Majesty cruise ship, 214
Rubin, David, 83
Rule-based behavior, 179, 180
Rule-based mistakes, 171, 180–184
Rules, deliberate violation of, 169–170
Safety. See also Accidents; Error
checklists, 189–191
electric vehicles, and 157–161
forcing functions, 142–145
interlocks, 142–143
lock-ins, 143–144
lockouts and, 144–145
management, 209–210, 212–213
NASA’s safety reporting system, 193–194
resilience engineering, 211–213
social and institutional pressures and, 186–189
sterile periods and, 200
Swiss cheese metaphor, 208–210
warning signals, 201
Sayeki, Yutaka, 99–100, 102–103, 105
Schank, Roger, 128–129
Schedules, product development, 237, 240
Scheier, Michael, 233
Schindler elevators, 147
Scripts, 129
Scrum method of product development, 234
Security
design and, 90–91, 255–257
identity theft and, 90
passwords as means of ensuring, 86–89, 91
Semantic constraints, 124–125, 129–130
Sensibility checks, 199, 205–206
Shingo, Shigeo, 193
Sholes, Christopher Latham
typewriter, 275–276. See also QWERTY
Short-term memory (STM), 92–95, 102
Shower controls, design of, 73
Signifiers, xv, 10, 12, 13–20, 72, 298
affordances vs., xiv–xv, 14, 18, 19
applied to everyday objects, 132–141
to bridge Gulf of Execution, 40
doors and, 15, 16, 132–135
external, 15
gesture-controlled devices and lack of, 115–116
as knowledge in the world, 79
misleading, 18–19
perceived affordances and, 145
poka-yoke technique and, 193
as reminders, 108–109
sound as, 155–161
on touch screen, 21
Signs, 15, 18, 19
Silence, problems with, 157–161
Simplified models, 100–105
Single-spout, single-control faucet, 153–154
Sink drain, signifiers for, 17
Skeuomorphic, 159
Skill-based behavior, 179, 180, 206–207
Sleep, memory and, 95–96
Sleep deprivation, error and, 210, 211
Sliding doors, 16
Slips, 170–171, 172–173
action, 171, 173, 174, 194
capture, 174, 208
classification of, 173–179
confirmation messages and, 204–205
description-similarity, 174, 175
memory-lapse, 171, 173, 176–177, 195
minimizing, 206–208
mode error, 174, 177–179
See also Error; Mistakes
Smart displays/screens, 121, 265–266. See also Touch–sensitive displays/screens
Smart phones, 265
Soap dispensers, gesture-controlled, 115–116
Social interaction, 283–284, 298
Social pressure, accidents and, 186–191
Socrates, 286
Sound, as signifier, 155–161 for electric cars, 157–161
Sound generators, for feedback, 23–24
Spatial cues, natural mapping and, 115
Specifications, design and correct, 234–235
Specify, as stage of execution, 41
Speech, presenting information via, 201–202
Spiral design, 222. See also Iteration in design
Stage gate method of product development, 234–235
Stages of action, 40–44
Stairways of public buildings, lockouts and, 144
Standardization
of faucet design, 153, 154, 155
individualization vs., 161
Standards
cultural, 130–132
digital time, 252–254
for electric automobile sounds, 159–160, 161
establishing, 248–249
HDTV, 250–252
international, 131, 248–249
necessity of, 250
Startup companies, failure of, 269–270
Stein, Robert, 289
“Sterile Cockpit Configuration,” 200
Stigler’s law, 270
Stigma problem, 244–247
Story, conceptual models as form of, 57–59
Stove controls, natural mapping and, 113–115, 116–117, 118
Subconscious, 48, 49. See also Cognition; Conscious cognition
behavioral level of processing
and, 51–52
human thought as, 44–49
skilled behavior as, 206–207
slips and, 173
Subway train doors, lack of signifiers on, 134–135
Susan B. Anthony coin, 79–80, 81–82
Sustainability, model for, 292–293
Swatch International Time, 254
“Swiss cheese model of how
errors lead to accidents,” 164, 208–210
Switches. See also Controls
airplane landing gear, 135
dead man’s, 142–143
light, 20–21, 135–140
wireless, 139
System error, 66
System image, 31–32
Task analysis, 137
Tasks
activities vs., 232–234
technology and changes in, 286, 287–288
Taught helplessness, 63
Technical manuals. See Manuals
Technological aids, for knowledge in the head, 112–113
Technology
accommodating human behavior, 68–71
adoption of, 268–269, 271, 272, 274
dependence on, 112–113, 285–287
design and, 257
as driver of change, 267–268, 282, 283–285
empowerment of individuals and, 295–297
enhancing human cognition, 112–113, 285–288
handed-up, 297
interaction design and, 5
interplay with psychology, 6–8
meaning of, 281–282
paradox of, 32–34
precision and use of, 104
product innovation and, 258, 264–268
radical innovation and, 281
reminders and, 109
self-blame and trouble using, 63
skeuomorphic designs and, 159
standardization and, 248–254
substituting for memory, 87
Telephone numbers, remembering, 45, 46
Telephones, 68, 70, 156, 264–266. See also Cell phones
Telephonoscope, 270–273
Temperature controls, refrigerator, 28–31
Temperature conversions, 101–102
Tenerife disaster, 186–187
Ten-franc coin, 79–80
Testing, 222, 228–229
Text direction/scrolling, culture and choice of, 120–121
Thermostat
conceptual model of, 57–59, 68–69, 181–182
control of refrigerator, 28–31
Things That Make Us Smart (Norman), 112, 288
Three-dimensional television, 252
3-D printers, 267, 296, 297
Three Mile Island nuclear power plant accident, 7
Tillers, 21–22
Time
Australian Aborigines, conception of, 120
cultural differences in view of, 118–120
digital, 252–254
product development and, 236, 238–239
Swatch International Time, 254
Time-based reminders, 109
Time stress, as cause of error, 168
Touch-sensitive displays/screens, 21, 140, 268–269. See also Smart displays/screens
Toyoda, Sakichi, 165
Toyota Motor Company, 165
Toyota Production System, 192, 193
Traffic conventions, 131–132
Training and licensing, 211
Transactive memory, 111–112
Transistor, 281
Transportation accidents, investigation of, 186–187, 188–189
Turn signal switches, 99–100
Typewriters, 280
development of keyboard, 274–279
Typing
knowledge in the world and, 77–78
touch and gesture-sensitive screens and, 264, 266
Ultra-high definition television, 252
Understanding, design and, 3–4
Understanding action, feedback and, 71–72
Underwater (scuba) diving accidents, 187–188
Undo, 199, 203–205
Universal design, 243–247
University of Toronto, 269
Usability, 117–118, 241, 295
Use, determining how to use object, 38–40
User experience, 10, 233
Users
conceptual model and, 31–32
designing for, 240–241
difficulties using products and, 59–65
purchaser vs., 117–118
See also Customers
Vacuum tubes, 281
Valance, emotional, 52
Vegetable peelers, design of, 244–245
Vehicular control, mapping and, 21–22
Video conferencing, 273–274
Videophone, 270–274
Video recording, of test groups, 228–229
Visceral level of processing, 50–51, 54–56
Voyager Books, 289
Walkers, design of, 245
Walking, cell phone usage while, 200
Wallace, Wanda, 83
Warning signals, design of, 201–202
Washer-dryer combination controls, 4
Watches
digital, 27–28, 33–34
mode-error slips and, 178
technology and changes in design of wristwatch, 32–34
Waterfall method, 234–236
Wegner, Daniel, 112
Wheelchair, control of, 21
Whitehead, Alfred North, 101
Wikipedia, 112, 270, 297
Wireless switches, 139
“Wizard of Oz” prototype technique, 227–228
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (Baum), 227
Woods, David, 212
Word-gesture typing systems, 266
Working memory, 92–95, 102
Wristwatch, 32–34
Writing, 104, 106, 107, 267
Xerox Corporation, 227
Zeitgeist, 260
Zhai, Shumin, 266
