Like his Apollo 11 crewmates, Michael Collins never again flew in space after the inaugural lunar mission. He departed NASA in January of 1970, and was appointed Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, a position he occupied for two years. He was later named Director of the Smithsonian Institute’s National Air and Space Museum, and eventually became the Undersecretary for the Smithsonian Institute. By the time he retired from the Air Force in 1978, Collins had achieved the rank of Major General.
Collins has authored a handful of books, including Carrying the Fire, Flying to the Moon and Other Strange Places, Liftoff, and Mission to Mars. He is also an accomplished watercolor artist, having painted scenes of the Everglades, near his home, as well as portraits of various aircraft he has flown over the course of his distinguished career. Collins now often refuses to sign his art work, after learning profiteers were re-selling the autographed portraits at inflated prices.
By the end of 1994, Collins had accumulated 5,000 hours of flying time, including 266 hours in space. Asteroid number 6471 bears Collins’ name, and he has been awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal, the Air Force Distinguished Flying Cross, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Along with his Apollo 11 crewmates, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins was honored with a star on Hollywood’s Walk of Fame.
Apollo 11 Flight Director, Gene Kranz, was named Deputy Director of NASA Mission Operations in 1974, followed by promotion to the full directorship in 1983. In December of 1993, during his final days at Mission Control, Kranz supervised the space shuttle crew that repaired the Hubble space telescope. Kranz retired from NASA in March of 1994.
In February of 1970, less than a year after the Apollo 11 lunar landing, the prime architect of the American space program, Wernher von Braun, moved from Huntsville, Alabama to Washington D.C. to become the Deputy Associate Administrator of NASA. Von Braun soon discovered that he missed being part of hands-on rocket development: “I felt like a mushroom—they kept me in the dark; once in a while, the door would open for some fertilizer to be shoveled in, and then the door would shut again.” Two years later, frustrated by the cancellation of the Apollo Project, diminished enthusiasm for a manned mission to Mars, and decreased funding for the space program, von Braun left NASA to become Vice-President of Engineering for the aerospace company, Fairchild Industries.
Wernher von Braun died of cancer on January 16, 1977, and was buried in Alexandria, Virginia. A lunar crater was named in his honor—a permanent tribute to the rocket scientist’s essential role in the American space program. In his lifetime, von Braun was awarded 12 honorary Doctorate degrees, and was the founder of the Research Institute at the University of Alabama in Huntsville.
In spite of the remarkable feats of von Braun’s rocket team, dark shadows have loomed over their careers. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, many influential Jewish leaders protested that the German rocket scientists should be punished as ex-Nazis, rather than lionized as innovators in rocket technology. In 1973, when most of the original German-born employees of NASA were let go as part of the post-Apollo reduction in work force, there was little sympathy among those who accused them of being unreformed anti-Semites.
Even the famed von Braun could not fully escape this controversy. In 1976, a year before the rocket scientist’s death, influential friends and colleagues lobbied President Gerald Ford to award von Braun the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Ford declined to present the award, likely influenced by a memorandum prepared by his advisor, David Gergen: “Sorry, but I can’t support the idea of giving (the) Medal of Freedom to (a) former Nazi whose V-2 was fired into over 3,000 British and Belgian cities. He has given valuable service to the U.S. since, but frankly, he has gotten as good as he has given.”
In 1984, Arthur Rudolph, who served as the Saturn V Project Manager during the height of the Space Race, was identified as a war criminal by Nazi hunters. The U.S. Department of Justice re-examined Rudolph’s government file, which was compiled at the time of his arrival from Germany in 1945. One of the file’s incriminating documents described the German as “100 percent Nazi” and “a dangerous type.” Rudolph was subsequently accused of “working thousands of slave laborers to death,” as well as concealing his involvement in the crimes. To avoid prosecution, the 77-year-old retired rocket scientist agreed to renounce his American citizenship and return to Germany, where he remained until his death in 1995. Believing the rocket scientist had been wrongly accused, Rudolph’s defenders unsuccessfully lobbied for restoration of his citizenship.
The historic relics of the Apollo 11 mission remain on permanent display. The quarantine trailer, flotation collar, and capsule righting spheres are housed at the Udvar-Hazy Center Annex near Dulles Airport in Washington D.C. The heat-scarred command module, Columbia, is on display at the Smithsonian Institute’s National Air and Space Museum.
Today, approximately 750 pounds of Moon rock and soil, collected from six different lunar landing sites, are housed in locations throughout the world. Some of the lunar rock samples are older than any geological specimens discovered on Earth, suggesting meteoric origin. In recognition of its age, one lunar specimen bears the name Genesis Rock. Another lunar rock, first discovered at Tranquility Base, is named Armalcolite, in honor of the Apollo 11 crew. In 1984, after thoroughly analyzing the accumulated lunar rock and soil samples, a study group issued a consensus report endorsing the Giant Impact Theory as the most likely explanation for the origin of the Moon.
For those skeptics who doubt that American astronauts actually landed on the Moon, photographic images taken by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter offer an inarguable rebuttal. The photographs, taken in July of 2009, from an altitude of 13 to 15 miles, offer definitive proof of the Apollo Moon landings. Images of Tranquility Base clearly show the Eagle’s descent engine on the lunar surface. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter’s principle investigator, Mark Robinson, enthusiastically described the photographs: “The LROC team anxiously awaited each image. We were very interested in getting our first peak at the lunar module descent stages just for thrill—and to see how well the cameras had come into focus. Indeed, the images are fantastic and so is the focus.”
Additional photographs were taken of the remaining Apollo landing sites. Discarded scientific instruments and the astronaut’s footprints are clearly visible at the location of the Apollo 14 landing. Apollo 17’s moon buggy and its tire tracks are visible in another series of photographs.
The Space Race is broadly defined as a 12-year competition between the United States and Soviet Union, beginning with the launch of Sputnik in October of 1957, and ending with the Apollo 11 lunar landing in July of 1969. Incredible sums of money were spent on the space program during this epic contest between Capitalism and Communism. The Apollo program cost 25.4 billion dollars, and the price tag for Apollo 11 alone, was 355 million dollars. In 1965 and 1966, the high water marks for NASA expenditures, approximately four cents out of every American tax dollar were spent on the space program. At the peak of America’s quest to land a man on the Moon, space was Florida’s third largest industry, behind tourism and citrus fruit. In the years since the conclusion of the Space Race, the true value of the costly space program has been vigorously debated. Was it an investment in mankind’s future or an expensive war of image and innovation waged against the Soviet Union?
Without a doubt, politics played a prominent role in propagating space exploration. Skilled politicians, most notably John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, capitalized on their countrymen’s fears of Soviet nuclear annihilation to push forth a bold and costly initiative to land a man on the Moon. While manned space flight was reflective of the American spirit of exploration and a source of national pride, critics often cite politics and money as the prime motivators. Space historian, Gerard J. Degroot, summed up the feelings of many skeptics: “…The decision was based not on science, but cold hard politics. McNamara (Secretary of Defense under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson) needed to save the aeros
pace industry. Johnson wanted to restore American prestige. Congress worried about losing influence in the third world. Senators wanted fat contracts for their states. Kennedy needed to rescue his image (in the wake of the Bay of Pigs fiasco). Everyone wanted to beat the Russians.”
At the same time, the technological legacy of the space program is indisputable. Weather tracking satellites, global positioning devices, bar codes (which were used by NASA to track parts), cordless tools, satellite dishes, smoke detectors, newly developed synthetic materials (including epoxies, graphite, and the popular lubricant, WD-40), diabetic insulin pumps, improved water filtration systems, and faster, more powerful computers are among the progeny of the American space program.
It is difficult to overlook the psychological implications of Apollo’s legacy. By the late 1960s, many Americans had grown disillusioned by seemingly endless domestic and international problems. When Neil Armstrong stepped on the Moon, for a brief moment, nearly every American felt enormous pride. Walter Cronkite, who repeatedly provided the nation with eyewitness accounts of the Space Race, perhaps summed it up best: “The 1960s, when we first launched humans into space and went to the Moon, were in other ways a drain on our spirit. The civil rights battles, the frightening divisiveness of the Vietnam War, the horrible assassinations—they drained the American spirit. It’s no exaggeration to say the space program saved us.”
After Project Apollo, space exploration no longer commanded the attention it enjoyed during the 1960s. Flights of the space shuttle, unmanned explorations of distant planets, and experiments undertaken on the International Space Station have been frequently buried in the back pages of contemporary newspapers. Routine television programming is no longer preempted by rocket launches or live broadcasts from space.
The novelty of space exploration is now overshadowed by a plethora of new technologies and distractions, including cable and satellite television, lightening fast computers, sophisticated electronic games, smart phones, and the Internet, to name a few. Except for rare occasions, like the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Americans infrequently experience a sense of national unity.
In an age where the war against terror, political squabbles, and economic uncertainty dominate the headlines, it is comforting to revisit that Sunday in July of 1969, when the world celebrated the news: The Eagle has landed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books:
Aldrin, Buzz. Reaching for the Moon. Collins, 2005.
Aldrin, Buzz. Magnificent Desolation: The Long Journey Home from the Moon. Harmony Books, 2009.
Aldrin, Edwin E., Jr. Return to Earth. Random House, 1973.
Anderson, Dale. Landmark Events in American History: The First Moon Landing. World Almanac Library, 2004.
Brinkley, Douglas. Cronkite. Harper Collins Publishers, 2012.
Burrows, William E. The New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. Random House, 1998.
Carpenter, Scott M. and L. Gordon Cooper, John H. Glenn, Virgil I. Grissom, Walter M. Schirra, Alan B. Shepard, and Donald K. Slayton. We Seven. Simon & Schuster, 1962.
Chaiken, Andrew. A Man on the Moon. Penguin Books, 1994.
Chaiken, Andrew. Man on the Moon: Lunar Explorers. Time-Life Books, 1999.
Collins, Michael. Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut’s Journeys. Cooper Square Press, 1974.
Craddock, Robert. Apollo 11. Chronicle Books, 2003.
Cronkite, Walter. A Reporter’s Life. Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.
Degroot, Gerard J. Dark Side of the Moon: The Magnificent Madness of the American Lunar Quest. New York University Press, 2006.
Dickson, Paul. Sputnik: The Shock of the Century. Walker, 2001.
Englehart, Steve. Countdown to the Moon. iUniverse.com, Inc., 1994.
Goodwin, Robert. Apollo 11: First Men on the Moon. Apogee Books, 1971.
Hansen, James R. First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong. Simon & Schuster, 2005.
Hardesty, Von and Gene Eisman. Epic Rivalry: The Inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race. National Geographic Society, 2007.
Kraft, Chris. Flight: My Life in Mission Control. Dutton, 2001.
Kranz, Gene. Failure is not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond. Berkley Books, 2000.
Lamb M.D., Lawrence E. Inside the Space Race: A Space Surgeon’s Diary. Synery Books, 2006.
Lawrence, Richard Russell. The Mammoth Book of Space Exploration and Disasters. Carol & Graf, 2005.
NASA archives. Apollo 11: NASA Mission Reports, Volumes 1 and 2, 1971.
Neufeld, Michael J. Von Braun: Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War. Knopf, 2007.
Slayton, Donald K. Deke! Forge, 1994.
Smith, Jeffrey K. Bad Blood: Lyndon B. Johnson, Robert F. Kennedy, and the Tumultuous 1960s. Authorhouse, 2010.
Swanson, Glen E., Ed. Before This Decade: Personal Reflections on the Apollo Program. University Press of Florida, 2002.
Thimmesh, Catherine. Team Moon: How 400,000 People Landed Apollo 11 on the Moon. Houghton-Mifflin Company, 2006.
Winterstein, Sr., William E. Secrets of the Space Age. Robert D. Reed Publishers, 2005.
Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff. Picador, 1979.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In writing a narrative of the Apollo 11 mission, the author utilized an abundance of material made available by NASA, as well as the research efforts of the numerous individuals listed in the Bibliography—I am most appreciative of their work. My narrative is by no means a definitive history of the American and Soviet space programs. Entire volumes have been devoted to various aspects of space exploration, along with lengthy biographies of many of the individuals mentioned in this chronicle. A significant portion of this book is rocket science, as written by a non-rocket scientist, so I can only hope I did not sacrifice complexity for the sake of conciseness.
Once again, my editor, Jim Fulmer, unselfishly gave of his time, helping me craft a readable book. This is our seventh book together, and I remain privileged to call him my friend.
My wife, Anne, patiently endured another book with me, offering her unwavering support and encouragement, while, once ag
ain, reviewing my manuscript. I love her very much.
My sons, Andy and Ben, are the lights in my life. I love them more than I can put into words.
It is my sincere hope you found The Eagle Has Landed: The Story of the Apollo 11 both entertaining and informative. Thank you for taking time to read this book.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Jeffrey K. Smith is a physician and writer. A native of Enterprise, Alabama, he earned his undergraduate and medical degrees from the University of Alabama. After completing his residency at the William S. Hall Psychiatric Institute, Dr. Smith entered private practice in upstate South Carolina.
The author resides in Greer, South Carolina with his wife, Anne. They are the proud parents of two sons, Andy and Ben.
OTHER BOOKS BY
JEFFREY K. SMITH
Murder-Mystery Novels:
Sudden Despair
Two Down, Two to Go
A Phantom Killer
Non-fiction:
Rendezvous in Dallas: The Assassination of John F. Kennedy
The Fighting Little Judge: The Life and Times of George C. Wallace
Fire in the Sky: The Story of the Atomic Bomb
Bad Blood: Lyndon B. Johnson, Robert F. Kennedy, and the Tumultuous 1960s
Dixiecrat: The Life and Times of Strom Thurmond The Loyalist: The Life and Times of Andrew Johnson
To learn more about these books, please visit: www.newfrontierpublications.net
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