by Robert Irwin
22. Edward William Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, 3rd edn (London, 1842), p. x.
23. On the life and works of Jones, see Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 129–35; Arberry, Oriental Essays, pp. 48–86; Garland Cannon, The Life and Mind of Oriental Jones, 2nd edn (Cambridge, 1990); R. K. Kaul, Studies in William Jones: An Interpreter of Oriental Literature (Simla, 1995); Fatma Moussa Mahmoud, Sir William Jones and the Romantics (Cairo, 1962); Alexander Murray (ed.), Sir William Jones, 1746–1794 (Oxford, 1998); Nigel Leask, British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire (Cambridge, 1992); Hans Arsleff, The Study of Language in England, 1780–1860 (Minneapolis, 1983), pp. 115–61; Marzieh Gail, Persia and the Victorians (London, 1952), pp. 13–34; O. P. Kejariwal, The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India’s Past, 1784–1838 (New Delhi, 1988), pp. 27–75; Charles Allen, The Buddha and the Sahibs: The men who discovered India’s lost religion (London, 2002), passim.
24. William Jones, ‘An Essay on the Poetry of the Eastern Nations’, The Works of Sir William Jones, edited by Lord Teignmouth (London, 1807), vol. 10, pp. 329–38.
25. William Jones, A Grammar of the Persian Language, 4th edn (London, 1797), p. 126.
26. Edward Said, Orientalism (London, 1978), p. 127; cf. p. 98. But see also Raymond Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680–1880, translated by Gene Patterson Black and Viktor Reinking (New York, 1984), p. 41; Marshall and Williams, The Great Map of Mankind, p. 136; Allen, The Buddha and the Sahibs, p. 63. Jones’s announcement of the Indo-Aryan hypothesis appeared in his ‘Third Discourse’: see Works, vol. 2, pp. 34–6.
27. Kejariwal, The Asiatic Society of Bengal; Leili Anvar, ‘L’Asiatick Society of Bengal’, Qantara, no. 44 (Summer 2002), pp. 39–42.
28. Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance, passim.
29. Francesco Venturi, ‘Despotismo Orientale’, Rivista di Studia Islamica, 72 (1960), pp. 121–4; Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance, passim.
30. Johnson quoted by James Boswell in Journal of a Tour of the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, LLD. 1773, edited by Frederick E. Pottle and Charles H. Bennett (London, 1963), p. 168.
31. On Leiden’s decline after Golius, see Toomer, Eastern Wisedome, pp. 52, 301; J. Brugmann and F. Schröder, Arabic Studies in the Netherlands (Leiden, 1979), pp. 20–21.
32.Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 102–3; Brugman and Schröder, Arabic Studies, pp. 23–5; Hamilton, ‘Western Attitudes to Islam in the Enlightenment’, pp. 75–7.
33.Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 124–5; Brugman and Schröder, Arabic Studies, pp. 26–7; Toomer, Eastern Wisedome, p. 313.
34.Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 108–24; Toomer, Eastern Wisedome, p. 113. On Reiske as a classicist, see Rudolf Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship from 1300 to 1850 (Oxford, 1976), p. 172.
35. Reiske quoted in I. Y. Kratchkovsky, Among Arabic Manuscripts: Memories of Libraries and Men (Leiden, 1953), p. 166.
36. On the craze for Chinese culture, see Paul Hazard, The European Mind 1680–1715, translated by J. Lewis May (Harmondsworth, 1964), pp. 36–40; Charles MacKerras, Western Images of China (Hong Kong, 1989), pp. 28–45; Marshall and Williams, The Great Map, pp. 20–23, 80–87, 107–10. But on the lack of British scholarly interest in China, see T. H. Barrett, Singular Listlessness: A Short History of Chinese Books and Scholars (London, 1989).
37. On Peter the Great’s Cabinet of Curiosities, see Robert K. Massie, Peter the Great: His Life and World (London, 1981), pp. 814–15. On cabinets of curiosity more generally see Peter Burke, A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot (Cambridge, 2000), p. 106; Alvar González-Palacios, Objects for a Wunder Kammer (London, 1981); Oliver Impey and Arthur MacGregor, The Origins of Museums: the cabinet of curiosities in sixteenth-and seventeenth-century Europe (Oxford, 1985); Patrick Mauriès, Cabinets of Curiosities (London, 2002). On Peter’s interest in Oriental studies, I. J. Kratschkowski [= I. Y. Kratchkovsky], Die Russische Arabistik: Umrisse ihrer Entwicklung (Leipzig, 1955), pp. 37–43; Richard N. Frye, ‘Oriental Studies in Russia’, in Wayne S. Vucinich (ed.), Russia and Asia: Essays on the Influence of Russia on the Asian Peoples (Stanford, Calif., 1972), pp. 35–6.
38. On the expansion of Russia into Asia and Russian Orientalism, Kratschkowski, Die Russische Arabistik, pp. 37–66; Kalpan Sahni, Crucifying the Orient: Russian Orientalism and the Colonization of the Caucasus and Central Asia (Bangkok, 1997); Frye, ‘Oriental Studies in Russia’, pp. 30–51.
39.Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 119–20; Thorkild Hansen, Arabia Felix: The Danish Expedition of 1761–1767, translated by James and Kathleen McFarlane (London, 1964).
40. Stig T. Rasmussen, ‘Journeys to Persia and Arabia in the 17th and 18th centuries’, in The Arabian Journey: Danish connections with the Islamic world over a thousand years (Århus, 1996), pp. 47–54.
41. Rasmussen, ‘Journeys to Persia and Arabia’, pp. 55–7.
42. Hansen, Arabia Felix; Rasmussen, ‘Journeys to Persia and Arabia’, pp. 57–64; Hamilton, Europe and the Arab World, pp. 140–41.
43. Henry Laurens, Les Origines intellectuelles de l’Expédition d’Egypte: l’orientalisme islamisant en France (1698–1798) (Istanbul and Paris, 1987), pp. 108–12, 116–17.
44. Laurens, Les Origines, pp. 63–5; Jean Gaulmier, Un grand témoin de la révolution et dé l’Empire: Volney (Paris, 1959), p. 37.
45. Nora Crook and Derek Guiton, Shelley’s Venomed Melody (Cambridge, 1986), p. 99.
46. Constantin-François de Chasseboeuf, comte de Volney, Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie pendant les années 1783, 1784 et 1785 suivi de considérations sur la Guerre des Russes et des Turcs, 2 vols, 5th edn (Paris, 1822); Volney, Les Ruines, on Méditations sur les révolutions des empires (Paris, 1791); Gaulmier, Un grand témoin; Laurens, Les Origines, pp. 67–82, 95–6, 123–9, 176–7. For Volney on ruins, see Daniel Reig, Homo orientaliste (Paris, 1988), esp. pp. 43–4; Gaulmier, Un grand témoin, pp. 112–28; Albert Hourani, ‘Volney and the Ruins of Empire’ in Hourani, Europe and the Middle East (London, 1980), pp. 81–6. On ruins more generally and their power to evoke thought, see Rose Macaulay, The Pleasure of Ruins (London, 1953); Christopher Woodward, In Ruins (London, 2001).
47. On de Sacy’s limitations as an Arabist, see Gaulmier, Un grand témoin, p. 279; Reig, Homo orientaliste, pp. 81, 102. The life and work of Silvestre de Sacy more generally form an important part of the next chapter.
48. J. Christopher Herold, Bonaparte in Egypt (London, 1963); Henry Laurens et al., L’Expédition d’Egypte: 1798–1801 (Paris, 1989); Laure Murat and Nicola Weill, L’Expédition d’Egypte: Le rêve oriental de Bonaparte (Paris, 1998); Darrell Dykstra, ‘The French Occupation of Egypt, 1798–1801’, in M. W. Daly (ed.), The Cambridge History of Egypt, vol. 2, Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century, pp. 113–38; Irene Bierman (ed.), Napoleon in Egypt (Ithaca, 2004). On the intellectual background, see Laurens, Les Origines.
49. Said, Orientalism, p. 81. But for the contrary view, see Gaulmier, Un grand témoin, pp. 39–40; Zachary Lockman, Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism (Cambridge, 2004), p. 71.
50. Al-Jabarti, ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt: Aja’ib al-Athar fi’l-Tarajim wa’l-Akhbar, Thomas Philipp and Moshe Perlmann (eds), 4 vols (Stuttgart, 1994), vol. 3, pp. 4–8; cf. Herold, Bonaparte in Egypt, pp. 69–70.
51. On Venture de Paradis, see Jean Gaulmier, ‘Introduction’ to Venture de Paradis’s translation, La Zubda Kachf al-Mamalik de Khalil az-Zahiri (Beirut, 1950), pp. vii–li; Laurens, Les Origines, pp. 181–2; Reig, Homo orientaliste, pp. 72–7.
52. Yves Lassius, L’Egypte, une aventure savante, 1798–1801 (Paris, 1998), passim; Reig, Homo orientaliste, pp. 97–8, 155.
53. Lassius, L’Egypte, p. 30.
54. Herold, Bonaparte in Egypt, p. 171.
55. On Jones’s 1784manifesto ‘A Discourse on the Institution of a Society for Inquiry in
to the History, Civil and Natural, the Antiquities, Arts, Sciences and Literature of Asia’, Jones, Works, 10 vols (London, 1807), vol. 3, pp. 1–9; see also Cannon, The Life and Mind of Oriental Jones, pp. 203–4.
56. Gast Mannes, Le grand ouvrage. Description de l’Egypte (Luxembourg, 2003); Lassius, L’Egypte; Patrice Bret (ed.), L’Expédition d’Egypte, une entreprise des Lumières, 1798–1801. Actes du colloque international (Paris, 1997).
6 Oriental Studies in the Age of Steam and Cant
1. On the life and works of Silvestre de Sacy, see J. Reinaud, ‘Notice historique et littéraire sur M. le baron Silvestre de Sacy’, Journal Asiatique, 3rd series, vol. 6 (1838), pp. 113–95; Pierre Claude-François Daunou, ‘Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le Baron Silvestre de Sacy’, Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, vol. 12, pt. 1 (1839), pp. 507–31; Hartwig Derenbourg, Silvestre de Sacy (1758–1838) (Paris, 1895); Henri Dehérain, Silvestre de Sacy: ses contemporains et ses disciples (Paris, 1938); Johann Fück, Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1955), pp. 140–52; Raymond Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680–1880, translated by Gene Patterson-Black and Viktor Reinking (New York, 1984), passim, but especially pp. 295–8; Robert Irwin, ‘Oriental Discourses in Orientalism’, Middle Eastern Lectures, 3 (1999), pp. 92–6; Farhad Daftary, The Assassin Legends: Myths of the Isma‘ilis (London, 1994), pp. 6, 122, 131–5.
2. On medieval Arabic grammar, see the excellent article by M. G. Carter, ‘Arabic Grammar’, in M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham and R. B. Serjeant (eds), The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. Religion, Learning and Science in the ‘Abbasid Period (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 118–38.
3. Silvestre de Sacy, ‘Traité des monnoies musulmanes traduit de l’Arabe du Makrizi’, reprinted in Bibliothèque des Arabisants Français, IFAO (Cairo, 1905), p. 9; cf. p. 37n.
4. Daniel Reig, Homo orientaliste (Paris, 1988), p. 12.
5. Maxime Rodinson, Europe and the Mystique of Islam, translated by Roger Veinus (Seattle and London, 1987), pp. 56–7; Baber Johansen, ‘Politics, Paradigms and the Progress of Oriental Studies. The German Oriental Society (Deutsche Morgenlándische Gesellschaft) 1845–1989’, MARS. Le Monde Arabe dans la Recherche Scientifique, 4 (Winter 1994), pp. 79–94; Zachary Lockman, Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism (Cambridge, 2004), pp. 68–9.
6. On the aristocratic complexion of the RAS, see C. F. Beckingham, ‘A History of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1823–1973’, in Stuart Simmonds and Simon Digby (eds), The Royal Asiatic Society: Its History and Treasures (Leiden, 1979), pp. 1–12.
7. On Muir, see below.
8. Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance, passim; J. J. Clarke, Oriental Enlightenment: The Encounter Between Asia and Western Thought (London, 1997), esp. pp. 61–70; Sheldon Pollock, ‘Deep Orientalism? Notes on Sanskrit and Power Beyond the Raj’, in Carol A. Buckeridge and Peter Van der Veer, Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament (Philadelphia, 1993), pp. 76–133.
9. O. P. Kejariwal, The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India’s Past, 1784–1838 (New Delhi, 1988); David Kopf, British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance. The Dynamics of Modernization, 1773–1835 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969).
10. On the life and works of Quatremère, see Gignault, ‘Quatremère’, in Memoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (Paris, 1877), pp. 195–218; Biographie Universelle, 45 vols (Paris, 1854–7), vol. 34, pp. 604–8; Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 152–3. Robert Irwin, ‘Orientalism and the Early Development of Crusader Studies’, in Peter Edbury and Jonathan Phillips (eds), The Experience of Crusading, vol. 2, Defining the Crusader Kingdom (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 224–5.
11. Franz Rosenthal, ‘Translator’s Introduction’, in Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, translated by Franz Rosenthal, vol. 1, 2nd edn (London, 1967), p. cii.
12. Ibid., p. c.
13. The literature on Ibn Khaldun is vast. For a bibliography which deserves to be updated, see Aziz al-Azmeh, Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship: A Study in Orientalism (London, 1981), pp. 231–318. (Al-Azmeh’s bibliography lists more than 850items.)
14. Ernest Gellner, Muslim Society (Cambridge, 1981), especially pp. 16–98. See also below in chapter 8, for a discussion of Gellner’s role as a defender of Orientalism.
15. On the life and works of von Hammer-Purgstall, see Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 158–66; Sepp Reichl, Hammer-Purgstall: Auf den romantischen Pfaden eines österreichischen Orientforschers (Graz, 1973); Irwin, ‘Orientalism and the Early Development of Crusader Studies’, pp. 223–4.
16. R. A. Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism (London, 1929), p. 189.
17. Joseph Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, ‘Mysterium Baphometis Revelatum seu fraters militiae templi, qua Gnostici et quidem Ophiani apostasie et impuritatis convicti per ipsa eorum monumenta’, Fundgruben des Orients, 6 (1818), pp. 1–120, 455–99; Hammer-Purgstall, ‘Die Schuld der Templer’, Denkschriften der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophischehistorische Classe, 6 (1835). See also Norman Cohn, Europe’s Inner Demons: An Enquiry Inspired by the Great Witch Hunt (London, 1975), pp. 87–8; Peter Partner, The Murdered Magicians: The Templars and Their Myth (London, 1981), pp. 138–45, 156–7.
18. Von Hammer-Purgstall, The History of the Assassins, English translation (London, 1835), pp. 36–7. See also von Hammer-Purgstall, ‘Sur le paradis du Vieux de la Montagne’, Fundgruben des Orients, 3 (1813), pp. 201–6; cf. Bernard Lewis, The Assassins, A Radical Sect in Islam (London, 1967), pp. 12–13; Farhad Daftary, The Assassin Legends: Myths of the Isma‘ilis (London, 1994), pp. 118–20.
19.Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 167–8; Herbert Prang, Friedrich Rückert: Geist und Form der Sprache (Wiesbaden, 1963).
20. Gustave Dugat, Histoire des orientalistes de l’Europe du XIIe au XIXe siècles, 2 vols (Paris, 1868), vol. 2, pp. 74–90; Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 170–73.
21. On Göttingen and on German Orientalism, more generally, see Ulrich Haarmann, ‘L’Orientalisme allemand’, MARS.: Le Monde Arabe dans la Recherche Scientifique, 4 (Winter 1994), pp. 69–78; Rudi Paret, The Study of Arabic and Islam at German Universities: German Orientalists since Theodor Nöldecke (Wiesbaden, 1968).
22.Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, p. 160; John Rogerson, Old Testament Criticism in the Nineteenth Century: England and Germany (London, 1984), pp. 15–17.
23. Christopher Stray, Classics Transformed. Schools, Universities and Society in England, 1830–1960 (Oxford, 1988), p. 26.
24.Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 174–5; JacobLassner, ‘Abraham Geiger: A Nineteenth-Century Jewish Reformer on the Origins of Islam’, in Martin Kramer (ed.), The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honour of Bernard Lewis (Tel Aviv, 1999), pp. 103–35.
25. On Weil, see Dugat, Histoire des orientalistes, vol. 1, pp. 42–8; Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 175–6; D. M. Dunlop, ‘Some Remarks on Weil’s History of the Caliphs’, in Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (eds), Historians of the Middle East (London, 1962), pp. 315–29; Bernard Lewis, ‘The Pro-Islamic Jews’, in Lewis, Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East, 2nd edn (Chicago and La Salle, 1993), p. 142.
26.Fück, ‘Islam as an Historical Problem in European Historiography since 1800’, in Lewis and Holt, Historians of the Middle East, p. 307; Baber Johansen, ‘Politics and Scholarship: The Development of Islamic Scholarship in the Federal Republic of Germany’, in Tareq Y. Ismael (ed.), Middle East Studies. International Perspectives on the State of the Art (New York, 1990), pp. 79–83.
27. Dugat, Histoire des orientalistes, vol. 2, pp. 91–100; Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, p. 157.
28. Schlegel quoted in Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance, p. 71.
29. Schwab, Oriental Renaissance, passim, but especially pp. 177–80.
30. T. H. Barrett, Singular Listlessness. A Short Hi
story of Chinese Books and Scholars (London, 1989), p. 78.
31. Ibid., pp. 98–9.
32. On Russian Orientalism in general see I. J. Kratschkowski, Die Russische Arabistik, Umrisse ihrer Entwicklung (Leipzig, 1959); Wayne S. Vucinich (ed.), Russia and Asia: essays on the influence of Russia on the Asian peoples (Stanford, Calif., 1972); Kalpana Sahni, Crucifying the Orient: Russian Orientalism and the Colonization of the Caucasus and Central Asia (Bangkok, 1997); Susan Layton, Russian Literature and Empire (Cambridge, 1994). On Silvestre de Sacy’s role as intellectual patron of Russian Orientalism, see the index to Kratschkowski, Die Russische Arabistik. On Dorn, see Kratschkowski, Die Russische Arabistik, pp. 71–2, 118–20.
33. OnFráhn, see Kratschkowski, Die Russische Arabistik, pp. 72–104.
34. On Tantawi, see ibid., pp. 110–12; I. Y. Kratchkovsky, Among Arabic Manuscripts (Leiden, 1953), pp. 115–23.
35. On Rosen, see Kratschkowski, Die Russische Arabistik, pp. 134–43; The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 32 vols, translated from the third Moscow edition (New York and London, 1973–83), vol. 22, p. 307.
36. Richard Jenkyns, The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Oxford, 1980), p. 16.
37. William Dalrymple, White Mughals: Love and Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century India (London, 2002), pp. xl–xli.
38. On the Indian ‘Orientalists’ and their Evangelical and Utilitarian critics, see David Kopf, British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance: The Dynamics of Indian Modernization 1773–1835 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969); cf. Schwab, Oriental Renaissance, pp. 192–4. 39.
39. Fück, Die Arabischen Studien, pp. 135–40; Sisir Kumar Das, Sahibs and Muslims. An Account of the College of Fort William (New Delhi, 1978); Kopf, British Orientalism, pp. 45–126.
40. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography [ODNB], edited by H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford, 2004) s.v.; Ulrich Marzolph and Richard Van Leeuwen (eds), Encyclopedia of the Arabian Nights (Santa Barbara, Calif., 2004), vol. 2, p. 629.
41. James Mill, The History of British India (London, 1820); cf. Kopf, British Orientalism, p. 236.
