3. Douglas Sloan, The Scottish Enlightenment and the American College Ideal (New York: Teachers College Press, 1971), 190–93; Guenter B. Risse, New Medical Challenges During the Scottish Enlightenment (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005), 69–70; Gulielmo Shippen, Juniore, “Oratio Salutatoria Habita In Comitus Academicis Novarcae in Nova-Caesaria Sexto Calendas Octobris 1754,” Shippen Family Papers, Cartons 3–4, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress; Betsey Copping Corner, “Day Book of an Education: William Shippen’s Student Days in London (1759–1760) and His Subsequent Career,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, April 21, 1950, esp. 134–36.
4. Benjamin Rush, Edinburgh, to Jonathan Smith, 30 April 1767, Henley Smith Collection, Box 1, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress; David Hosack, Biographical Memoir of Hugh Williamson, M.D., LL.D., … Delivered on the First Day of November, 1819, at the Request of the New-York Historical Society (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1820), 18–23; Risse, New Medical Challenges, 84. Rush dedicated his dissertation to Benjamin Franklin. Benjaminus Rush, Dissertatio Physica Inauguralis, de Coctione Ciborum in Ventriculo: Quam, Annuente Summo Numine, Ex Auctoriate Reverendi admodum Viri, Gulielmi Robertson, S.S.T.P. Academiae Edinburgenai Praefecti … (Edinburgh: Balfour, Auld, and Smellie, 1768).
5. Samuel Bard to John Bard, 28 November 1761, 25 September 1762, and Samuel Bard to Hon[ored] Parents, 23 January 1762, Bard Family Papers, Box 1, Folders 7 and 8, Archives and Special Collections, Stevenson Library, Bard College; Michael Sappol, A Traffic of Dead Bodies: Anatomy and Embodied Social Identity in Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 48–50; Samuel Bard to John Bard, 30 January 1763, Bard Collection, Malloch Rare Book Room, New York Academy of Medicine; Samuel Bard, A Discourse upon the Duties of a Physician, with Some Sentiments on the Usefulness and Necessity of a Public Hospital: Delivered before the President and Governors of King’s College, at the Commencement Held on the 16th of May 1769. As Advice to Those Gentlemen Who then Received the First Medical Degrees Conferred by that University … (New York: A. and J. Robertson, 1769); Samuel Bard, A Discourse on the Importance of Medical Education, Delivered on the Fourth of November, 1811, at the Opening of the Present Session of the Medical College of Physicians and Surgeons (New York: C. S. Van Winkle, 1812); Alfred R. Hoermann, Cadwallader Colden: A Figure of the American Enlightenment (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002), 31; Abraham Ernest Helffenstein, Pierre Fauconnier and His Descendants with Some Account of the Allied Valleaux (Philadelphia: S. H. Burbank, 1911), 82–83; Samuel Bard, Tentamen Medicum Inaugurale, De Viribus Opii … (Edinburgh: A. Donaldson and J. Reid, 1765); John Bard to Samuel Bard, 15 August 1765, Miscellaneous Manuscripts, Box 1, John Bard and Samuel Bard Correspondence Folder, Health Sciences Library, Archives and Special Collections, Columbia University.
6. Benjamin Smith Barton, Observations on Some Parts of Natural History: To Which is Prefixed an Account of Several Remarkable Vestiges of an Ancient Date, Which Have Been Discovered in Different Parts of North America (London: Printed for the author, 1787); Benjamin Smith Barton, New Views of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America (Philadelphia: Printed for the author, 1797); Samuel Bard to John Bard, 9 April 1764, Bard Family Papers, Box 1, Folder 8, Bard College.
7. David Dary, Frontier Medicine: From the Atlantic to the Pacific, 1492–1941 (New York: Knopf, 2008), 19–25; John Wesley, Primitive Physick: Or, an Essay and Natural Method of Curing Most Diseases (London: Thomas Tyre, 1747); Virgil J. Vogel, American Indian Medicine (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970), 148–53; Samuel Bard to John Bard, 16 February 1764, Bard Family Papers, Box 1, Folder 8, Bard College.
8. Kevin Berland, Jan Kirsten Gilliam, and Kenneth A. Lockeridge, eds., The Commonplace Book of William Byrd II of Westover (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 7–9, 48, 235n; William Byrd, “An Account of a Negro-Boy that is Dappel’d in Several Places of His Body with White Spots,” Philosophical Transactions (1695–1697), XIX:781–82. Cotton Mather, Some Account of What is Said of Inoculating or Transplanting the Small Pox. By the Learned Dr. Emanuel Timonius, and Jacobus Pylarinus. With Some Remarks Thereon. To Which Are Added, a Few Queries in Answer to The Scruples of Many About the Lawfulness of This Method (Boston: Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, 1721); Margot Minardi, “The Boston Inoculation Controversy of 1721–1722: An Incident in the History of Race,” William and Mary Quarterly, January 2004, 47–76; Increase Mather, Some Further Account from London, of the Small-Pox Inoculated. With Some Remarks on a Late and Scandalous Pamphlet Entitled, Inoculation of the Small Pox as Practis’d in Boston (Boston: J. Edwards, 1721); Eldridge G. Cutler, “A Short Abstract of the Early History of Medicine in Massachusetts to the Year 1800,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 24 January 1901, 79–80.
9. See, for instance, Alexander Monro, secundus, 1770, Operations of Surgery, lecture book; The Physiology or an Account of the Natural Functions of the Humane Body taken from the Lectures of Mr. Alexr. Monro, Edinburg, undated; The History of the Rise and Progress of Anatomy (ca. 1735); Lectures on the Practice of Medicine Delivered at Edinburgh in the Session 1785–6 by Doctor Andrew Duncan; Physiological Observations from Dr. William Cullen’s Lectures, 1766–7, University Archives, Center for Research Collections, University of Edinburgh. Rush to Smith, 30 April 1767, Henley Smith Collection, Library of Congress.
10. Samuel Stanhope Smith, Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species. To Which are Added Strictures on Lord Kaims’s Discourse, on the Original Diversity of Mankind (Philadelphia: Robert Aitken, 1787).
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., 20–21; Hugh Williamson, Observations on the Climate in Different Parts of America, Compared with the Climate in Corresponding Parts of the Other Continent. To Which Are Added, Remarks on the Different Complexions of the Human Race; With Some Account of the Aborigines of America. Being an Introductory Discourse to the History of North Carolina (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1811), 64–69; Cotton Mather, The Negro Christianized: An Essay to Excite and Assist That Good Work, the Instruction of Negro-Servants in Christianity (Boston: B. Green, 1706), 24; Georges-Louis Leclerc, Buffon’s Natural History. Containing a Theory of the Earth, a General History of Man, of the Brute Creation, and of Vegetables, Minerals, &c. (London: J. S. Barr, 1792), IV:262–63.
13. Smith, Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion, 60–62; Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: Norton, 2008), 116–17; Gary B. Nash, The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America (New York: Penguin, 2005), 376.
14. Edward Long, The History of Jamaica, or, General Survey of the Antient and Modern State of that Island: With Reflections on Its Situation, Settlements, Inhabitants, Climate, Products, Commerce, Laws, and Government (London: T. Lowndes, 1774), I:336.
15. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia; Written in the Year 1781, Somewhat Corrected and Enlarged in the Winter of 1782, for the Use of a Foreigner of Distinction, in Answer to Certain Queries Proposed by Him … (Paris, 1782), 263–65.
16. Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana: Or, the Ecclesiastical History of New-England, from Its First Planting in the Year 1620 unto the Year of Our Lord, 1698 (London: Thomas Parkhurst, 1702), III:199; George Lyman Kittredge, Letter of Samuel Lee and Samuel Sewall Relating to New England and the Indians (Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son, 1912), 153; Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 173–79; Debra L. Gold, The Bioarchaeology of Virginia Burial Mounds (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004), 6–7; Lyon Gardiner Tyler, The College of William and Mary in Virginia: Its History and Work, 1693–1907 (Richmond: Whittet and Shepperson, 1907), 37, 53; Garry Wills, Mr. Jefferson’s University (Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2002), 57–60; John S. Haller Jr., American Medicine in Transition, 1840–1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 195; Edward B. Krumbhaar, “The Early History of Anatomy in the United States,” in Francis Rando
lph Packard, ed., Annals of Medical History (New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1922), IV:283.
17. T. Aubrey, The Sea-Surgeon, Or the Guinea Man’s Vade Mecum. In Which is Laid Down, The Method of Curing Diseases as Usually Happen Abroad, Especially on the Coast of Guinea; With the Best Way of Treating Negroes, Both in Health and in Sickness (London: John Clarke, 1729), 102–5.
18. Hume argued that history showed white to be the color of civilization. Africans lacked intelligence, he continued, and any arguments to the contrary were flattery. Hume went to the effort of adding these thoughts to a later edition of his essays. David Hume, Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects, Containing Essays, Moral and Political (London: A. Millar, 1753), 291; Long, History of Jamaica, I:376.
19. Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 112–17, 257–63; Franklin B. Sawvel, Logan the Mingo (Boston: Gorham, 1921), 82–85.
20. Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 252–54; Long, History of Jamaica, 360–64; George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 141–43.
21. Leclerc, Buffon’s Natural History, 271–352.
22. Samuel Eliot Morison, Three Centuries of Harvard (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936), 96; Lawrence Shaw Mayo, John Wentworth: Governor of New Hampshire, 1767–1775 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1921).
23. Lyman Spalding to William Neil, 28 November 1808 (#808628.2), Rauner Library, Dartmouth College; General Catalogue of Dartmouth College and the Associated Schools, 1769–1900, Including a Historical Sketch of the College Prepared by Marvin Davis Bisbee, the Librarian (Hanover, NH: For the College, 1900), 54–55; William Allen, An Address, Occasioned by the Death of Nathan Smith, M.D., First Lecturer in the Medical School of Maine at Bowdoin College, Delivered by Appointment of the Faculty of Medicine, March 26, 1829 (Brunswick, ME: G. Griffin, 1829); John King Lord, A History of the Town of Hanover, N.H. (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth Press, 1928), 135; Frederick Chase, A History of Dartmouth College and the Town of Hanover, New Hampshire, ed. John K. Lord (Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son, 1891), I:616; James Alfred Spalding, Dr. Lyman Spalding: The Originator of the United States Pharmacopoeia, Co-Laborer with Dr. Nathan Smith in the Founding of the Dartmouth Medical School and Its First Chemical Lecturer; President and Professor of Anatomy and Surgery of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of the Western District, at Fairfield, N.Y. (Boston: W. M. Leonard, 1916), 148–65; Daniel C. Gilman, “Bishop Berkeley’s Gifts to Yale College: A Collection of Documents Illustrative of ‘The Dean’s Bounty,’” Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society (New Haven: For the Society, 1865), I:162–65; Catalog of New England Indian Relics in the Gilbert Museum at Amherst College, 2nd ed. (1904); Samuel George Morton, Crania Americana; or, A Comparative View of the Skulls of Various Aboriginal Nations of North and South America. To Which Is Prefixed an Essay on the Varieties of the Human Species (Philadelphia: J. Dobson, 1839).
24. See essay on the establishment of an American science academy in “Samuel Bard Lectures at Columbia,” ca. 1790, vol. 2, Bard Family Papers, Bard College; William George Nice, “Notes Taken from the Lectures of Benjamin Smith Barton, Professor of the Institutes & Practice of Phisic in the University of Pennsylvania … from the First Monday in November 1814 to the First of March 1815,” esp. 95, 131, Rare Books, Center for History of Medicine, Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard University.
25. Andrew Fyfe, A Compendium of the Anatomy of the Human Body, Intended Principally for the Use of Students, 2nd American ed. (Philadelphia: James Humphreys, 1807), I:23–34.
26. In 1632 William Gordon assumed a chair in medicine at Aberdeen, where he established the medical program. In 1662 John Stearne became Public Professor of Medicine at Trinity College in Dublin, where his society of physicians later formed the medical college. In 1705 the Edinburgh town council hired Robert Elliot, a surgeon, to teach anatomy. Just a few years later, the anatomy rooms at Oxford were busy enough to lead one antiquarian to protest about the foul smells invading the Bodleian Library. Trinity also opened a laboratory and dissection theater. In 1719 James Gregory began his family’s long tenure in the anatomy professorship at Aberdeen, where he shifted science instruction from Latin to English. Alexander Monro and Alexander Monro Jr. established anatomy at Edinburgh. William Cheselden offered dissections in London, where the brothers William and John Hunter later provided regular anatomical instruction. In the first three decades of his career, the elder Alexander Monro alone taught more than 3,500 students. Even at St. Andrews University—where the governors had long neglected medicine in favor of philosophy and mathematics—Thomas Simson arrived from Glasgow to fill a new anatomy chair. Leo M. Zimmerman and Ilza Veith, Great Ideas in the History of Surgery (San Francisco: Norman, 1993), 113–14; Charte de Charles IX, Roy de France, 1567: Privileges octroyez aux professeurs du College & Faculte de Chirugie (Paris, 1644); Alexander Bower, The History of the University of Edinburgh; Chiefly Compiled from Original Papers and Records, Never Before Published (Edinburgh: Alex. Smellie, 1817), II:145–47. This section benefits from material in the collections of the Musée d’Histoire de la Médecine, Université Paris Descartes, France; Museum Vrolik, Amsterdam Medical Center, Netherlands; Hunterian Museum, Royal College of Surgeons, London, UK; Anatomy Museum, Edinburgh University, Scotland. Rembrandt van Rijn, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632, Mauritshuis Museum, Netherlands. Also see Nicolaes Eliasz Pickenoy, The Osteology Lesson of Dr. Sebastiaen Egbertsz, 1619, Amsterdam Museum, Netherlands; Rembrandt van Rijn, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Jan Deijman, 1656, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Andrew Dalzel, History of the University of Edinburgh from Its Foundations (Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas, 1862), II:291–92; Constantia Maxwell, A History of Trinity College Dublin 1591–1892 (Dublin: University Press, Trinity College, 1946), 80, 93; Robert G. Frank Jr., “Medicine,” in Nicholas Tyacke, ed., The History of the University of Oxford (Oxford: Clarendon, 1997), IV:543; John Malcolm Bulloch, A History of the University of Aberdeen 1495–1895 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1895), 156–57; Bower, History of the University of Edinburgh, II:179; Ronald Gordon Cant, The University of St. Andrews: A Short History (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1970), 88, 129.
27. Thomas Shepard, The Clear Sun-shine of the Gospel Breaking Forth upon the Indians in New-England. Or, an Historicall Narration of Gods Wonderful Workings upon Sundry of the Indians, Both Chief Governors and Common-People, in Bringing Them to a Willing and Desired Submission to the Ordinances of the Gospel; and Framing Their Hearts to an Earnest Inquirie after the Knowledge of God the Father, and of Jesus Christ the Saviour of the World (London: R. Cotes for John Bellamy, 1648), 25–26; Samuel Eliot Morison, The Founding of Harvard College (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1935), 378; “John Leverett’s Diary, 1707–1723,” 60, Papers of John Leverett, Box 8, Harvard University Archives.
28. Shippen, Morgan, and Rush were all students of Samuel Finley. Sloan, Scottish Enlightenment and the American College Ideal, 185–89; Corner, “Day Book of an Education: William Shippen’s Student Days in London,” esp. 134–36; Krumbhaar, “Early History of Anatomy in the United States,” 276–79; Catalogue of All Who Have Held Office in or Have Received Degrees from the College of New Jersey at Princeton in the State of New Jersey (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1896), 7; entries for 3 May 1765 and 12 May 1767, in Minutes of the Trustees of the College, Academy and Charitable Schools of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. 1, 1749–1768 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1974), 288–89, 318–20; John Morgan, A Discourse upon the Institution of Medical Schools in America; Delivered at a Public Anniversary Commencement, Held in the College of Philadelphia, May 30 and 31, 1765. With a Preface Containing, Amongst Other things, the Author’s Apology for Attempting to Introduce the Regular Mode of Practicing Physic in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: William Bradford, 1765), xii–xiii, 28–33; last will and testament of Richard Stockton (signer), 20 May 1780, Stockton Family A
dditional Papers, Box 2, Folder 22, Manuscripts and Archives, Princeton University; Whitfield J. Bell Jr., “Some American Students of ‘That Shining Oracle of Physic,’ Dr. William Cullen of Edinburgh, 1755–1766,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 20 June 1950, esp. 277–81.
29. Krumbhaar, “The Early History of Anatomy in the United States,” 276; Thomas G. Morton and Frank Woodbury, The History of the Pennsylvania Hospital, 1751–1895 (Philadelphia: Times Printing House, 1895), 212, 493; Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 263; Reuben Aldridge Guild, History of Brown University, with Illustrative Documents (Providence: By subscription, 1867), 177–87.
30. Morgan, Discourse upon the Institution of Medical Schools in America, 6–7, 11–13; Pennsylvania Mercury, 16 January 1790; Josiah Bartlett, An Historical Sketch of the Progress of Medical Science, in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Being the Substance of a Discourse Read at the Annual Meeting of the Medical Society, June 6, 1810, with Alterations and Additions to January 1, 1813 (1813), 5–6; Francis D. Moore, “Two Hundred Years Ago: Origins and Early Years of the Harvard Medical School,” Annual Meeting of the American Surgical Association, Boston, Massachusetts, April 21–23, 1982, 527.
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