by FDR
30. De Witt to War Department, February 13, 1942, quoted in Carey McWilliams, Prejudice: Japanese Americans 109 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1944).
31. Quoted in Goodwin, No Ordinary Time 321.
32. Richard Lingeman, Don’t You Know There’s a War On? 337 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1970).
33. Peter Irons, Justice at War 39–40 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
34. The New York Times, January 25, 1942.
35. New York Herald Tribune, February 12, 1942.
36. Times-Herald (Washington, D.C.), February 16, 1942.
37. Stimson diary (MS), February 10, 1942, Yale University. “The second generation Japanese can only be evacuated as part of a total evacuation, or by frankly trying to put them out on the ground that their racial characteristics are such that we cannot understand or trust even the citizen Japanese. This latter is the fact but I am afraid it will make a tremendous hole in our constitutional system.”
38. Kai Bird, The Chairman: John J. McCloy and the Making of the American Establishment 149–150 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992).
39. Said De Witt, “The Japanese race is an enemy race and while many second and third generation Japanese born on United States soil have become Americanized, the racial strain is undiluted.” De Witt to War Department, February 14, 1942, in Davis, F.D.R.: The War President 423n.
40. Quoted in Irons, Justice at War 61. Also see Robinson, By Order of the President 105; Bird, The Chairman 153.
41. Stimson diary (MS), February 11, 1942, Yale University.
42. Stetson Conn, “The Decision to Evacuate the Japanese from the Pacific Coast,” 143, in Kent Roberts Greenfield, ed., Command Decisions (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960).
43. Bird, The Chairman 154.
44. Biddle, In Brief Authority 219.
45. Frank S. Arnold, Michael C. Barth, and Gilah Langer, “Economic Losses of Ethnic Japanese as a Result of Exclusion and Detention, 1942–1946,” quoted in Robinson, By Order of the President 144.
46. Morgenthau diaries (MS), March 5, 1942, FDRL.
47. Quoted in Goodwin, No Ordinary Time 322.
48. Biddle, In Brief Authority 219. The case contra is argued by Michelle Malkin, In Defense of Internment (Chicago: Regnery, 2004).
49. This narrative is based on General Arnold’s letter to Judge Rosenman describing the raid in 11 Public Papers and Addresses 214–216. For Admiral King’s version, see Ernest J. King and Walter Muir Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record 375–376 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1952). Above all, see Quentin Reynolds’s elegant The Amazing Mr. Doolittle 168–223 (New York: Arno Press, 1953).
50. Roosevelt liked the term so much that he named the presidential Catoctin Mountain retreat Shangri-la (Eisenhower re-christened it “Camp David” in honor of his grandson), and toward the end of the war a Navy carrier was also named Shangri-la.
51. Stimson diary (MS), April 18, 1942.
52. Edmund L. Castillo, Flat-tops: The Story of Aircraft Carriers 86 (New York: Random House, 1969); Marius B. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan 648 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000).
53. Murray and Millett, A War to Be Won 273–278.
54. For Molotov’s travel accoutrements, see Eleanor Roosevelt, This I Remember 250–251 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949). For Molotov’s secretaries, see Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 560. “I went in for a moment to talk to him [before going to bed]’ ” wrote Hopkins, “and he asked that one of the girls he brought over as secretaries be permitted to come [to his room] and that has been arranged.”
55. Geoffrey C. Ward, ed., Closest Companion: The Unknown Story of the Intimate Friendship Between Franklin Roosevelt and Margaret Suckley 159 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995).
56. Memorandum of conversation, May 30, 1942, recorded by Professor Samuel H. Cross, in Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 561–563.
57. FDR to Marshall and King, May 6, 1942, FDRL. Quoted in Goodwin, No Ordinary Time 344.
58. Cross memorandum, in Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 563.
59. FDR to WSC, May 31, June 6, 1942, 1 Churchill and Roosevelt: Their Complete Correspondence 503–504, 508 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984). “The Molotov visit went off well,” Hopkins wrote Churchill. “I liked him much better than I did in Moscow. Perhaps it was because he wasn’t under the influence of ‘Uncle Joe.’ At any rate, he and the President had very direct and straightforward conferences.” Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 580.
60. Winston S. Churchill, The Hinge of Fate 338 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950).
61. William D. Hassett, Off the Record with F.D.R. 67 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1958); Hastings Ismay, The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay 256 (New York: Viking, 1960).
62. Stimson diary (MS), June 20, 1942, Yale University. General Marshall said, “We were largely trying to get the President to stand pat on what he had previously agreed to. The President shifted, particularly when Churchill got hold of him.… The President was always willing to do any sideshow and Churchill was always prodding him.” Forrest C. Pogue, 2 George C. Marshall 329 (New York: Viking, 1965).
63. WSC to FDR, June 20, 1942, quoted in Hinge of Fate 381–382.
64. WSC to FDR, July 8, 1942, Churchill & Roosevelt 520–521.
65. “It looks as if the President is going to jump the traces,” Stimson recorded in his diary on June 17, 1942. “He wants to take up the case of GYMNAST [the North African invasion] again, thinking that he can bring additional pressure to save Russia.”
66. Mark A. Stoler, The Politics of the Second Front: American Military Planning and Diplomacy in Coalition Warfare, 1941–1943 55 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1977).
67. Quoted in Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War 425 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947).
68. FDR to Hopkins, Marshall, and King, July 16, 1942, in Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 603–605.
69. Forrest Pogue interview with General Marshall, November 15, 1956, quoted in Pogue, 2 Marshall 330.
70. Stimson diary (MS), September 17, 1942. Marshall said, “A failure [of a cross-channel attack], for which the public has been adequately prepared, could have been accepted. But failure in TORCH would bring only ridicule and loss of confidence.” 38th Mtg, CCS, August 28, 1942, quoted in Pogue, 2 Marshall 403.
71. WSC to FDR, July 31, 1942, quoted in Churchill, Hinge of Fate 450. Also see B. H. Liddell Hart, History of the Second World War 312 (London: Cassell, 1970). Marshall chose Eisenhower ahead of 366 general officers who were more senior.
72. FDR to WSC, July 29, 1942, 1 Churchill & Roosevelt 545–546.
73. WSC to FDR, August 13, 1942, ibid. 560–562.
74. WSC to FDR, August 18, 1942, ibid. 571–572.
75. Quoted in Liddell Hart, Second World War 314.
76. WSC to FDR, August 27, 1942, 1 Churchill & Roosevelt 577–579.
77. Marshall’s draft (August 29, 1942) is in ibid. 571–582. FDR’s cable of August 30, 1942, ibid. 583–584.
78. FDR to WSC, September 4, 1942, ibid. 590–591.
79. WSC to FDR, September 5, 1942, ibid. 591–592.
80. Eisenhower’s remark is quoted in Arthur L. Funk, The Politics of Torch 100 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1974).
81. Churchill’s rejoinder was September 6. 1 Churchill & Roosevelt 592.
82. FDR, Broadcast to the French People, November 7, 1942, 11 Public Papers and Addresses 451–452.
83. Roosevelt’s letters to the heads of state were delivered by the respective American ambassadors when the invasion commenced. Ibid. 458–459.
84. Franco’s reply, November 13, 1942, is in ibid. 459.
85. For details of the attempted German seizure of the fleet and the French response, see Rear Admiral Paul Auphan and Jacques Mordal, The French Navy in World War II 255–271 (Annapolis, Md.: United States Naval Institute, 1959).
86. The cross-Channel attack, Ei
senhower told the War Department’s Major General Thomas T. Handy, “could not possibly be staged before August of 1944, because our original conception of the strength required was too low.” Quoted in Forrest Pogue, 3 George C. Marshall 31. For the text of the CCS decision, see Churchill, Hinge of Fate 692–693.
87. Under Pétain, “Work, Family, Country” replaced the republican motto “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” at Vichy. As one leading supporter of Pétain said in 1940, “Parliamentary democracy has lost the war. It must disappear and give place to a hierarchical authoritarian regime, national and social.” R. Aron, Histoire de Vichy, 1940–1944 130 (Paris: Fayard, 1954).
88. Charles de Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 88–89 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1956).
89. Transcript of Press Conference, January 24, 1943, U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, Conferences in Washington and Casablanca 727 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968).
90. Ibid. 635, 726–729, 833–837, 847–849; Churchill, Hinge of Fate 595–600; Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 695–696. Churchill’s message to the war cabinet is in Premier Files, 3, 1972 Public Records Office, London.
91. Paul Kecskemeti, Strategic Surrender: The Politics of Victory and Defeat 122 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1958). Cf., Anne Armstrong, Unconditional Surrender: The Impact of the Casablanca Policy upon World War II 48–50 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1961).
92. Kenneth Pender, Adventure in Diplomacy: Our French Dilemma 152 (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1945). Pender was American vice consul in Marrakech and accompanied Churchill to the airport.
TWENTY-FIVE | D-Day
The epigraph is from FDR’s D-Day prayer delivered to the nation June 6, 1944. 13 Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Samuel I. Rosenman, ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950).
1. FDR to ER, January 29, 1943, FDRL.
2. ER to FDR, January 28, 1943, FDRL.
3. Frankfurter to FDR, Roosevelt and Frankfurter: Their Correspondence, 1928–1945 329 Max Freedman, ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967).
4. Quoted in B. H. Liddell Hart, History of the Second World War 388 (London: Cassell, 1970).
5. WSC to FDR, March 18, 1943, 2 Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence 158, Warren F. Kimball, ed. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984).
6. FDR to WSC, March 20, 1943, ibid. 164–165.
7. David Kennedy, Freedom from Fear 589 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Also see Letter, President to COMINCH, 18 March 1943, FDRL.
8. John Keegan, The Second World War 120 (New York: Viking, 1989).
9. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear 590.
10. 7 Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897–1963 6831, Robert Rhodes James, ed. (London: Chelsea House, 1974).
11. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear 648–649.
12. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay: An American Life 116 (New York: Henry Holt, 1990).
13. Ibid. 156–157.
14. Winston S. Churchill, The Hinge of Fate 795–796 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950); Robert Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 729 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948).
15. Churchill, Hinge of Fate 797; Winston and Clementine: The Personal Letters of the Churchills 483, Mary Soames, ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999).
16. Churchill, Hinge of Fate 798.
17. WSC to Clementine Churchill, May 28, 1943, in Personal Letters of the Churchills 483.
18. James F. Byrnes, All in One Lifetime 155 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958).
19. 12 Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt 327, Samuel I. Rosenman, ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1943).
20. FDR to WSC, July 25, 1943, 2 Churchill & Roosevelt 347.
21. Press Conference 912, July 30, 1943, 22 Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt 50 (New York: Da Capo, 1972).
22. WSC to FDR, July 31, 1943, ibid. 369.
23. Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day,” August 16, 1943.
24. Geoffrey Ward, ed., Closest Companion 230–231 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995).
25. Forrest C. Pogue, 3 George C. Marshall 261–262 (New York: Viking, 1973); Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 758; Winston S. Churchill, Closing the Ring 85 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951).
26. Frances Perkins interview, Columbia Oral History Project, Columbia University. “PM’s sleeping habits have now become quite promiscuous,” wrote British Foreign Office Undersecretary Sir Alexander Cadogan. “He talks with President till 2 am and consequently spends a large part of day hurling himself violently in and out of bed, bathing at unsuitable moments and rushing up and down the corridors in his dressing gown.” Diaries of Sir Alexander Cadogan, 1938–1945 559, David Dilks, ed. (New York: Putnam, 1972).
27. Pogue, 3 George C. Marshall 249; Albert C. Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports 245 (New York: Henry Holt, 1958).
28. Einstein felt singularly honored by the president and afterward composed a jingle:
In der Haupstadt stolzer Pracht
Wo das Schicksal wird gemacht
Kämpfet froh ein stolzer Mann
Der die Lösung schaffen kann.
Which, translated loosely, reads:
In the Capital’s proud glory
Where Destiny unfolds her story,
Fights a man with happy pride
Who solution can provide.
Ronald W. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times 514 (New York: World, 1971).
29. MAUD Report, July 15, 1941, in Margaret Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945 394 ff. (New York: Macmillan, 1964).
30. Churchill, Hinge of Fate 814.
31. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb 377 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985). Before the war ended, appropriations for the Manhattan Project would exceed $2 billion, and it would employ more than 150,000 persons with plants at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Hanford, Washington, aside from the research facility at Los Alamos, New Mexico.
32. A facsimile of FDR’s note to Bush is ibid. 388.
33. In the House, Stimson met with Rayburn, Majority Leader John McCormack, and minority leader Joe Martin; in the Senate, with Majority Leader Alban Barkley and Republicans Styles Bridges of New Hampshire and Wallace White of Maine. Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War 614 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948). The view expressed by Rayburn was shared by all. “If I don’t know a secret,” said Rayburn, “I can’t let it leak out.” None of the legislators ever pressed Stimson for details. David Brinkley, Washington Goes to War 211 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988).
34. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich 225–229 (New York: Macmillan, 1970).
35. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear 667.
36. FDR to WSC, October 11, 1941, 1 Churchill & Roosevelt 249–250.
37. Churchill, Hinge of Fate 380–381.
38. Ibid. Also see Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 593; Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time 346 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994).
39. Quoted in Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945 417 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).
40. For the text of the Quebec atomic agreement, see Rhodes, Making of the Atomic Bomb 523.
41. Quoted in Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt 418.
42. 1 Correspondence Between the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Presidents of the USA and the Prime Ministers of Great Britain During the Great Patriotic War 157–161; vol. 2, 84–94 (Moscow: Foreign Language Publishers, 1957).
43. Ted Morgan, FDR: A Biography 677–680 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985).
44. Irwin F. Gellman, Secret Affairs: FDR, Cordell Hull, and Sumner Welles 312–317 (New York: Enigma Books, 1995); Morgan, FDR 682–685; cf. Cordell Hull, 2 Memoirs 1230–1231 (New York: Macmillan, 1948).
45. Eleanor Roosevelt, This I Remember 63 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949). Mrs. Roosevelt deleted the names in her retelling.
46. FDR, Fire
side Chat, July 28, 1943, 12 Public Papers and Addresses 333.
47. Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt 395 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952).
48. FDR, Message to Congress, October 27, 1943, 12 Public Papers and Addresses 450–451.
49. FDR, June 22, 1944, 13 Public Papers and Addresses 180–182.
50. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear 787.
51. Department of Veterans Affairs, History of G.I. Bill, www.gibill.va.gov/GI_Bill_Info/history.htm.
52. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear 787.
53. The 58,000-ton Iowa, sister ship of New Jersey, Wisconsin, and Missouri, was 888 feet in length and had a beam of 108 feet. Iowa was armed with nine 16-inch guns, and its power plant was capable of producing 210,000 horsepower and a top speed of 33.5 knots. The ship’s complement included 142 officers, 2,394 enlisted men, and 98 Marines. It was commanded by Captain John L. McCrea, the president’s former naval aide.
54. FDR to ER, November 18, 1943, 2 F.D.R.: His Personal Letters 1469, Elliott Roosevelt, ed. (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1950).
55. Memo of Major General Thomas Handy, November 19, 1943, cited in Maurice Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1944 341–342 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1959). The minutes of the Iowa conference are reproduced in Foreign Relations of the United States, The Conferences at Cairo and Teheran, 1943 253–261 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961).
56. FRUS, Cairo and Teheran 256.
57. For a facsimile fold-out copy of FDR’s National Geographic sketch, see Jean Edward Smith, The Defense of Berlin 18–19 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963).
58. Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It 133 (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946).
59. FRUS, Cairo and Teheran 285–287. Lieutenant Junior Grade William M. Rigdon, who kept the president’s log, chastely recorded that Ms. Summersby was a guest of Elliott and FDR, Jr. The following day FDR shared a picnic lunch with Ike and Kay Summersby and subsequently told his daughter, Anna, he believed they were sleeping together. Anna to John Boettiger, December 27, 1943, FDRL.
