Some context is in order.
Around 500 BC, two thousand years before the Sengoku Civil Wars in Japan, Prince Siddhartha of India founded Buddhism – a “middle way” between asceticism and sensualism.
Around 1000 years later, in 500 AD – still 1000 years before the Civil Wars in Japan – the first patriarch of what would become Zen Buddhism migrated from India to China.
This was the beginning of a split in Buddhism, what I (as an amateur historian and sometimes practitioner of Zen) call “Northern Buddhism” and “Southern Buddhism.”
Prince Siddhartha – Buddha – laid down some very strict guidance for how monks and laymen ought to conduct themselves, to work towards enlightenment.
But he left a lot of flexibility in practice, and Buddhism evolved in different directions in different regions, countries, and cultures.
“Northern Buddhism” – Chinese, Korean, Mongolian, and eventually Japanese – fused with traditional Chinese culture, especially Laozi’s Taoism, and later Japanese Shinto.
In working towards enlightenment, Northern Buddhists generally fixed their earthly focus on doing things. Wood carvings, paintings, temple-building, archery, martial arts.
Whereas a Southern Buddhist – especially Indian or Thai – might meditate by a graveyard, funeral pyre, or trash heap, a Northern Buddhist would work towards harmony through building structures, serving the lay people, and working towards a perfect mastery of a craft or skill. This was, in theory, to be done in a non-self-aggrandizing way. “Doing / not-doing”, no duality, whatever. A full history of Buddhism and Buddhist doctrine is far beyond the scope of this piece, but a little context is needed to understand the world that Oda Nobunaga was born into, and the old order that he – quite literally – burned down.
Chinese Buddhism – called Chan which became Zen in Japan – was always fused with purposefulness. This led to some of the finest artworks in history and some practitioners reaching the greatest heights of human mastery. A monk working to reach a non-self-aggrandizing, “non-doing” mastery was a powerful thing.
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ALAS, THOUGH…
We all remain, however unfortunately, all too human.
In the Wutang mountains of China, the Shaolin Monastery was founded to reach self-perfection of Taoist and Chan Buddhist practices through martial arts, intense and demanding physical training.
The Shaolin Monastery, with its focus on the non-doing mastery of Chan Buddhism, produced some of China’s finest warriors.
But the constant training towards a calm and joyful mastery led eventually to earthly power, and soon, the power-hungry came to inhabit and rule Shaolin Mountain. Soon enough, the monks were involved in political affairs and had drifted from the teachings of Buddha in favor of self-aggrandizement. Over hundreds of years of human affairs, it is nearly impossible to prevent these things from happening.
Japanese Zen Buddhism was imported from China, reformed under the towering figure of Hakuin Ekaku (we’ll no doubt discuss Hakuin at some point in the future), and continued to fuse with Japanese culture, particularly Shinto – which believes that all things have a certain lifeforce to them – and with samurai culture, with its emphasis on bushido, fierceness, and honor.
In Japanese, this led to two major forces of Buddhist warriors – the sōhei full-time professional warrior monks, and the ikkō-ikki irregular monk-led peasant insurgency.
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MONKS ON THE BATTLEFIELD
Wikipedia: Ikko-ikki –
“Ikkō-ikki (一向一揆?, "Ikkō-shū Uprising") were mobs of peasant farmers, Buddhist monks, Shinto priests and local nobles, who rose up against daimyo [samurai warlord] rule in 15th- and 16th-century Japan. They followed the beliefs of the Jōdo Shinshū (True Pure Land) sect of Buddhism, which taught that all believers are equally saved by Amida Buddha's grace.”
The astute follower of religion and history might note that this is somewhat similar doctrine to Martin Luther – a doctrine of equal salvation for all leading to, incredibly counterintuitively, total war against authority.
“Rennyo [semi-leader of Ikko-ikki] was a pacifist and taught pacifism. He advocated self-defense only as a guard against the particularly tumultuous times in which he lived. Daimyo, samurai warlords, fought one another for territory nearly constantly, across the entire country. Rennyo thus saw to it that the temples of his sect were fortified and defended from attackers. Though it was his charismatic leadership and populist teachings that inspired the fervor which powered the Ikkō-ikki uprisings, he never advocated or supported them. The uprisings continued nevertheless, past Rennyo's death in 1499, and the sub-sect of Jōdo Shinshū that he had founded spread as well. They established themselves in fortresses at Ishiyama Hongan-ji, just outside Osaka, and in Nagashima, on the borders of Owari and Ise Provinces and in a series of temples in Mikawa Province as well. Towards the end of the 16th century, however, their growing numbers and strength caught the attention and concern of the great samurai leaders of the time.”
As you can see, what began with perhaps very pure intentions, eventually devolved into banditry, brutality, and chaos. Alas, we’re all too human —
“The ikki attracted the ire of the likes of Tokugawa Ieyasu and Oda Nobunaga due to the economic and political threat they posed, more so than as a result of their military might. The Ishiyama Hongan-ji and other strongholds of the ikki lay across major trade routes and occupied the same areas that Nobunaga saw as his primary territorial objectives. Nearly every road to the capital from this western part of the country was controlled by the ikki or their allies, and the populist roots of the ikki movement gave them significant economic power as well. Nobunaga in particular sought the destruction of the Ikkō-ikki for these reasons, and because they allied themselves with nearly every one of his major enemies or rivals.”
The ikko-ikki were semi-spontaneous uprising; they had their supporters and patrons, and were often funded covertly by a rival warlord who was all-too-pleased to see popular insurgent uprisings in an enemy province. Despite this, there was some organic nature to the uprisings.
The sohei were another beast entirely.
Wikipedia: Sōhei –
“Sōhei (僧兵 literally "monk warriors";?, fighting monks) were Buddhist warrior monks of both medieval and feudal Japan. At certain points of history they held considerable power […] Following the Genpei War, the monasteries, to a large extent, turned their attention to rebuilding, first physically, and then politically. Their political influence grew stronger through peaceful means, and the warrior monks played only very minor roles in the wars of the 13th and 14th centuries. Violent conflict between the temples still occurred on occasion, once again over political and spiritual appointments, and related matters.”
But alas, that accumulating political power attracted those who desire such power…
“The Ōnin War, starting in 1467, was the prelude to over a century of civil war in Japan, and the stimulus for a reorganization of the warrior monks. Unlike the Jōkyū War and Mongol invasions of the 13th century, the Ōnin War was fought primarily in Kyoto, and thus the warrior monks could no longer remain non-violent and neutral. In addition, a new breed of warrior monks was forming in the countryside. Where the monks of Mount Hiei had subscribed to the teachings of the Tendai sect, these new groups, calling themselves Ikkō-ikki, followed the dictates of the Jōdo Shinshū sect of beliefs. They were essentially coalitions of religious fundamentalist priests, farmers, and families, who were willing to literally fight for their beliefs. Ikkō-ikki translates to something like "devoted league," but also had the connotation of "single-minded riots."”
These professional warrior monks often led the countryside insurgencies, built powerful fortresses amidst their temples and monasteries, and would sally forth from them to raid, pillage, and plunder samurai lords they considered to be their enemies.
Throughout all of human affairs, there is one particularly dangerous thing about people who believe themselves
to be deeply moral independent of their actions: soon, they come to believe that any particular sins and transgressions they make are acceptable, since they are already in fact moral and “saved.”
So it was with the sohei warrior monks.
Rigorous non-self-aggrandizing Buddhist training built their power; their power attracted those who seek power, who gradually led them to relinquish the actual tenets of Buddhism.
Soon, Buddhist sayings were invoked but no Buddhist practices were being followed followed – the lust for power alone remained among their leaders.
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VANTAGES #3: MORALITY ON THE MARCH
In this chapter, we use the benefit of hindsight to observe morality on the march.
Henry Kissinger’s seminal work, Diplomacy, repeatedly analyzes the relationship between “legitimacy” and “power.”
It’s unsurprising that Kissinger, as one of the foremost practitioners of realpolitik in American history, has little respect for all-morality, no-substance policies... but he tends to rely on other authorities to make his point –
“Nothing annoyed [Theodore] Roosevelt as much as high-sounding principles backed by neither the power nor the will to implement them.”
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LESSON #1: MORALITY AND FORCE AS CONFLICT-RESOLUTION STRATEGIES
We come, then, to our first lesson for this chapter.
To paraphrase Kissinger in my own words, both morality and force can be used as conflict-resolution strategies.
A policy based on some type of morality attempts to convince potential rivals and belligerents to limit the scope or conduct or adjust the rules, in accordance with that type of morality.
The Sohei warrior monks of Mount Hiei had asserted – on basis of morality – that they could intervene “defensively” into the political and military affairs of Sengoku Japan, but – due to tradition, custom, and morality – it was impermissible for anyone to assault the fortress-monasteries they built.
After having assailed Nobunaga and being defeated, Nobunaga had demanded some (relatively minor) concessions, attempting to show the warrior-monks who was now in charge militarily. The effect was one of rage for violating their standard of morality.
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AN ASSAULT ON A SORT OF MORALITY
From Yoshikawa’s Taiko –
“The main temple of the Honganji had been built during a period of civil disorder and confusion. It had been constructed to withstand the disturbances of the day: outside its stone walls was a deep moat, spanned by a fortified bridge. Although the Honganji was a temple, its construction was that of a castle. To be a monk here meant to be a warrior, and this place had no fewer warrior-monks than Nara and Mount Hiei. Very likely there was not a single priest living in this ancient Buddhist fortress who did not hate the upstart Nobunaga. They accused him of being an enemy of Buddhism who flouted tradition, a destroyer of culture, and a devil who knew no bounds—a beast among men.
When, instead of negotiating, Nobunaga had confronted the Honganji and forced them to cede some of their land to him, he had gone too far. The pride of the Buddhist fortress was strong, and the privileges it enjoyed were ancient. Reports from the west and other regions began to trickle in that the Honganji was arming itself. The temple had bought two thousand guns, the number of warrior-monks had increased manyfold, and new defensive moats were being dug around the fortress.
Nobunaga had anticipated that they would ally themselves with the Miyoshi clan, and that the weak shogun would be seduced to their side. He had also expected that malicious propaganda would be spread among the common people, and that this would most likely set off a popular uprising against him.”
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LESSON #2: MORALITY AS A CLOAK VS GENUINE MORALITY
Violating widely held morality in a land has disastrous consequences. It means everyone hates and distrusts you, potentially including your own people. Even in the most ferocious and violent of people, there is a need to justify one’s actions and a need for acceptance.
No military that is even semi-modern can succeed when its soldiers believe themselves on the wrong side of morality, if a suitable alternative morality is not first registered amidst the people.
The same applies to all organizations, from those as close-knit as a family, to those as large as a global multinational corporation.
However, if one’s policy and actions are heavily reliant on morality, it’s critically important to not be seen as hypocritical and amoral.
A policy driven heavily by morality… that’s not seen as moral… is like a combustion engine without gasoline. It is heavy, it may look impressive – but it gets you nowhere.
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THE BURNING RETREAT SEALS THE FATE OF THE WARRIOR MONKS
When Nobunaga’s brother was killed in combat with the warrior-monks, he was enraged and marched on their position.
The allied monk and samurai forces hostile to Nobunaga made a huge fatal mistake in their retreat – looking to deny Nobunaga’s men food and supplies, they burned peasant villages and fields en route.
Yoshikawa –
"Nobunaga is almost at Keage. The troops of Akechi Mitsuhide are in the vanguard, and they are smashing through with unstoppable force."
The generals could hardly believe their ears.
"Surely it's not Nobunaga in person! There's no way he could have withdrawn from the battlefield at Naniwa so quickly."
"Two or three hundred of our men in Yamashina have already been killed. The enemy is on the rampage, and, as always, Nobunaga himself is giving the orders. He's riding like a mounted demon or god, and he's coming right this way!"
Both Asai Nagamasa and Asakura Kagetake blanched. Nagamasa felt this especially keenly; Nobunaga was his wife's brother, a man who had formerly treated him kindly. The show of Nobunaga's fury made him shudder.
"Retreat! Fall back to Mount Hiei!" Nagamasa blurted out.
Asakura Kagetake picked up the urgent tone of his ally's voice. "Back to Mount Hiei!" At the same time, he screamed orders to his retainers. "Set fire to the peasants' houses along the road! No, wait until our vanguard has gone through. Then set the fires! Set the fires!"
The hot wind scorched Nobunaga's brow. Sparks had ignited his horse's mane and the tassels on his saddle. From Yamashina to Otsu, the burning beams of the peasants' houses along the road and the flames that seemed to swirl through the air could not prevent him from reaching his destination. He had become the flames of a torch himself, and his men, as they galloped on, were a horde of fire.
"This battle will be a memorial service for Lord Nobuharu."
"Did they think we wouldn't avenge the spirits of our dead comrades?"
But when they came to the Mii Temple, there was not an enemy soldier to be seen. They had climbed Mount Hiei with all the speed of flight.”
The burning en route exposed their lack of compassion for the peasants of Japan – supposedly the people they were fighting to protect from Nobunaga.
This sealed their fate.
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LESSON #3: CORRECT ASSESSMENT OF MEANS
Kissinger –
“Consensus on the nature of the equilibrium [of power] is usually established by periodic conflict.”
The warrior-monks were seeing a readjustment of their power. They were fierce and unified warriors, but the new technology and tactics of the Oda forces were pushing them back.
Then, they violated their own morality at a time when they desperately needed it, becoming seen as hypocrites. This meant they were solely dealing with balance of power issues.
Kissinger –
“[A policy of “National Interest”] depends above all on the ability to assess power relationships. Universal values are defined by their perception and are not in need of constant reinterpretation; indeed they are inconsistent with it. But determining the limits of power requires a blend of experience and insight, and constant adjustment to circumstance. In theory, of course, the balance of power should be quite calcu
lable; in practice, it has proved extremely difficult to work out realistically.”
The third lesson is that, when morality does not apply or has faded, you must correctly assess the balance of power when force or competitive is applied.
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NOBUNAGA’S RAGE
Yoshikawa –
“Nobunaga looked at the towering mountain and thought, It's here. It's not the mountain that is my enemy; it's the mountain's special privileges. He saw it in a new light now. From ancient times, through the reigns of successive emperors, how much had the tradition and special privileges of the mountain troubled and pained the country's rulers and the common people? Was there even the faintest glimmer of the real Buddha on the mountain?
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