54. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed., p. 187.
55. Benyamin et al., “Childhood Intelligence Is Heritable”; Davies et al., “Genome-Wide Association Studies.”
56. For instance, using an analogy of growing corn in Iowa as opposed to the Mojave Desert to illustrate environmental differences, Herrnstein and Murray write in The Bell Curve, “The environment for American Blacks has been closer to the Mojave and the environment for American whites has been closer to Iowa” (p. 298).
CHAPTER 7: THE PERCEPTION OF RACE
1. G. Hellenthal et al., “A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History,” Science 343, no. 6172 (2014): 747–51.
2. B. M. Henn et al., “Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations,” PLoS Genetics 8, no. 1 (2012): e1002397.
3. “Companion website for ‘A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History,’” http://admixturemap.paintmychromosomes.com (accessed February 23, 2014).
4. All dates for mitochondrial divergences listed in this chapter are from Soares et al., “Correcting for Purifying Selection: An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock,” American Journal of Human Genetics 84, no. 6 (2009): 740–59.
5. A. Zoutendyk, A. C. Kopec, and A. E. Mourant, “The Blood Groups of the Hottentots,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 13, no. 4 (1955): 691–97.
6. South African History Online, “The Battle of Blood River,” http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/battle-blood-river (accessed April 28, 2014).
7. G. Chin and E. Culotta, “The Science of Inequality,” Science 344 (2014): 819–21.
8. M. Rassmussen et al., “An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia,” Science 334 (2011): pp. 94–98.
9. G. R. Summerhayes et al., “Human Adaptation and Plant Use in Highland New Guinea 49,000 to 44,000 Years Ago,” Science 330, no. 6186 (2010): 78–81.
10. C. N. Johnson and B. W. Brook, “Reconstructing the Dynamics of Ancient Human Populations from Radiocarbon Dates: 10,000 Years of Population Growth in Australia,” Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B 278 (2011): 3748–54.
11. Clements, N, “The Tasmanian Black War: A Tragic Case Lest We Remember?” The Conversation, http://theconversation.com/tasmanias-black-war-a-tragic-case-of-lest-we-remember-25663 (accessed June 22, 2014).
12. Australian Government, Department of Immigration and Border Protection, “Fact Sheet 8. Abolition of the ‘White Australia’ Policy,” http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm (accessed April 19, 2014).
13. Ibid.
14. M. Raghavan et al., “Upper Palaeolithic Siberian Genome Reveals Dual Ancestry of Native Americans,” Nature 505 (2014): 87–91; M. C. Dulik et al., “Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Variation Provides Evidence for a Recent Common Ancestry between Native Americans and Indigenous Altaians,” American Journal of Human Genetics 90, no. 2 (2012): 229–46; M. V. Derenko et al., “The Presence of Mitochondrial Haplogroup X in Altaians from South Siberia,” American Journal of Human Genetics 69, no. 1 (2001): 237–41.
15. For a photograph of the document, see http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/34_41_114_fn.jpeg (accessed April 27, 2014). See also P. D'Errico, “Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets,” http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/lord_jeff.html (accessed April 27, 2014).
16. “Voyages,” Trans Atlantic Slave Trade Database, http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/index.faces (accessed December 24, 2013).
17. For texts of the original documents, see http://library.uwb.edu/guides/usimmigration/18%20stat%20477.pdf, http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=47, http://www.sanfranciscochinatown.com/history/1892gearyact.html, http://library.uwb.edu/guides/usimmigration/39%20stat%20874.pdf (accessed May 3, 2014).
18. Except where otherwise noted, the examples described in this paragraph are derived from Hellenthal et al., “Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History.”
19. Statement by Alan Goodman in the transcript from episode 1 of the PBS series Race: The Power of an Illusion, https://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_04-about-01-01.htm (accessed April 19, 2014).
20. Ibid. (accessed July 15, 2012).
21. United States Census Bureau, “Race,” http://www.census.gov/topics/population/race.html (accessed June 25, 2014).
22. P. N. Ossorio, “Myth and Mystification: The Science of Race and IQ,” in Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth, and Culture, eds. S. Krimsky and K. Sloan (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011).
23. Ibid. The portions in quotation marks are quoted by Ossorio from N. J. Smelser, W. J. Wilson, and F. Mitchell, eds., introduction to America Becoming: Racial Trends and Their Consequences, v. 1 (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001), p. 4.
EPILOGUE
1. R. Bowden et al., “Genomic Tools for Evolution and Conservation in the Chimpanzee: Pan troglodytes ellioti Is a Genetically Distinct Population,” PLoS Genetics 8, no. 3 (2012): e1002504.
2. D. N. Livingstone, “The Preadamite Theory and the Marriage of Science and Religion,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 82, no. 3 (1992): 1–78.
3. N. Wade, A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History (New York: Penguin, 2014), pp. 121–22.
4. N. A. Rosenberg et al., “Clines, Clusters, and the Effect of Study Design on the Inference of Human Population Structure,” PLoS Genetics 1, no. 6 (2005): e70, http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.0010070 (accessed September 14, 2014).
5. G. Coop et al., letter to the editor, New York Times, August 10, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/10/books/review/letters-a-troublesome-inheritance.html?_r=1 (accessed September 14, 2014).
6. T. Dobzhansky, “Nothing in Biology Makes Sense except in the Light of Evolution,” American Biology Teacher 35 (1973): 125–29.
7. Gallup. “Evolution, Creationism, Intelligent Design,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/21814/evolution-creationism-intelligent-design.aspx (accessed June 22, 2014).
Allison, A. C. “Protection Afforded by Sickle-Cell Trait against Subtertian Malarial Infection.” British Medical Journal 1, no. 4857 (1954): 290–94.
American Kennel Club. “Breed Matters.” https://www.akc.org/breeds (accessed May 3, 2014).
American Society of Hematology. “Statement on Screening for Sickle Cell Trait and Athletic Participation.” http://www.hematology.org/Advocacy/Statements/2650.aspx (accessed June 25, 2014).
Australian Government, Department of Immigration and Border Protection. “Fact Sheet 8. Abolition of the ‘White Australia’ Policy.” http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm (accessed April 19, 2014).
Behar, D. M. et al. “A ‘Copernican’ Reassessment of the Human Mitochondrial DNA Tree from Its Root.” American Journal of Human Genetics 90, no. 4 (2012): 675–84.
Beleza, S. et al. “The Timing of Pigmentation Lightening in Europeans.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 30, no. 1 (2013): 24–35.
Benyamin, B. et al. “Childhood Intelligence Is Heritable, Highly Polygenic and Associated with FNBP1L.” Molecular Psychiatry 19, no. 2 (2014): 253–58.
Billings, P. R. et al. “Discrimination as a Consequence of Genetic Testing.” American Journal of Human Genetics 50, no. 3 (1992): 476–82.
Bowden, R. et al. “Genomic Tools for Evolution and Conservation in the Chimpanzee: Pan troglodytes ellioti Is a Genetically Distinct Population.” PLoS Genetics 8, no. 3 (2012).
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). “Episode 3, Fatal Impacts.” Racism: A History. http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/racism-history (accessed June 25, 2014).
Brody, H., and L. M. Hunt. “BiDil: Assessing a Race-Based Pharmaceutical.” Annals of Family Medicine 4, no. 6 (2006): 556–60.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Adult Cigarette Smoking in the United States: Current Estimates.” http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/adult_data/cig_smoking/#state (accessed January 12, 2013).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “U. S. Cancer
Statistics: An Interactive Atlas.” http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DCPC_INCA/DCPC_INCA.aspx (accessed January 12, 2013).
Cequeira, C. C. et al. “Predicting Homo Pigmentation Phenotype through Genomic Data: From Neanderthal to James Watson.” American Journal of Human Biology 24, no. 5 (2012): 705–709.
Chabris, C. F. “IQ Since ‘The Bell Curve.’” Commentary 106 (1998): 33–40. http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998a.html (accessed February 5, 2013).
Chabris, C. F. et al. “Most Reported Genetic Associations with General Intelligence Are Probably False Positives.” Psychological Science 23, no. 11 (2011): 1314–23.
Chambers, I. et al. “Functional Expression Cloning of Nanog, a Pluripotency Sustaining Factor in Embryonic Stem Cells.” Cell 113, no. 5 (2003): 643–55.
Chin, G., and E. Culotta. “The Science of Inequality: What the Numbers Tell Us.” Science 344, no. 6186 (2014): 818–21.
Clemens, J. D. et al. “ABO Blood Groups and Cholera: New Observations on Specificity of Risk and Modification of Vaccine Efficacy.” Journal of Infectious Disease 159, no. 4 (1989): 770–73.
Clements, N. “The Tasmanian Black War: A Tragic Case Lest We Remember?” The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/tasmanias-black-war-a-tragic-case-of-lest-we-remember-25663 (accessed June 22, 2014).
Coalition for Genetic Fairness “The History of GINA.” http://www.geneticalliance.org/ginaresource.history (accessed January 27, 2013).
“Companion website for ‘A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History.’” http://admixturemap.paintmychromosomes.com (accessed February 23, 2014).
Coop, G. et al. Letter to the editor. New York Times, August 10, 2014. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/10/books/review/letters-a-troublesome-inheritance.html?_r=1 (accessed September 14, 2014).
Cruciani, F. et al. “A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa.” American Journal of Human Genetics 88, no. 6 (2011): 814–18.
Currat, M. et al. “Molecular Analysis of the Beta-Globin Gene Cluster in the Niokholo Mandenka Population Reveals a Recent Origin of the Beta-S Senegal Mutation.” American Journal of Human Genetics 70, no. 1 (2002): 207–23.
D'Errico, P. “Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets.” http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/lord_jeff.html (accessed April 27, 2014).
Daley, T. C. et al. “IQ on the Rise: The Flynn Effect in Rural Kenyan Children.” Psychological Science 14, no. 3 (2003): 215–19.
Darwin, C. R. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. London: John Murray, 1859.
———. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 4th ed. London: John Murray, 1866.
———. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 5th ed. London: John Murray, 1869.
Davies, G. et al. “Genome-Wide Association Studies Establish That Human Intelligence Is Highly Heritable and Polygenic.” Molecular Psychiatry 6, no. 10 (2011): 996–1005.
Derenko, M. V. et al. “The Presence of Mitochondrial Haplogroup X in Altaians from South Siberia.” American Journal of Human Genetics 69, no. 1 (2001): 237–41.
Dobzhansky, T. “Nothing in Biology Makes Sense except in the Light of Evolution.” American Biology Teacher 35 (1973): 125–29.
Dulik, M. C. et al. “Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Variation Provides Evidence for a Recent Common Ancestry between Native Americans and Indigenous Altaians.” American Journal of Human Genetics 90, no. 2 (2012): 229–46.
Edwards, A. W. F. “Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy.” BioEssays 25, no. 8 (2003): 798–801.
Ehlers, C. L. “Variations in ADH and ALDH in Southwest California Indians.” Alcohol Research & Health 30, no. 1 (2007): 14–17.
Ehlers, C. L. et al. “Linkage Analyses of Stimulant Dependence, Craving and Heavy Use in American Indians.” American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics 156B, no. 7 (2011): 772–80.
Elias, S. A. “Late Pleistocene Climates of Beringia, Based on Analysis of Fossil Beetles.” Quaternary Research 53, no. 2 (2000): 229–35.
Fairbanks, D. J. Evolving: The Human Effect and Why It Matters. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2012.
Fairbanks, D. J. et al. “NANOGP8: Evolution of a Human-Specific Retro-Oncogene.” G3: Genes Genomes Genetics 2, no. 11 (2012): 1447–57.
Fairbanks, D. J., and P. J. Maughan. “Evolution of the NANOG Pseudogene Family in the Human and Chimpanzee Genomes.” BMC Evolutionary Biology 6 (2006): 12.
Faruque, A. S. G. et al. “The Relationship between ABO Blood Groups and Susceptibility to Diarrhea due to Vibrio cholerae 0139.” Clinical Infectious Disease 18, no. 5 (1994): 827–28.
Flynn, J. R. What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Fry, A. E. et al. “Common Variation in the ABO Glycosyltransferase Is Associated with Susceptibility to Severe Plasmodium falciparum Malaria.” Human Molecular Genetics 17, no. 4 (2008): 567–76.
Fu, W. et al. “Analysis of 6,515 Exomes Reveals the Recent Origin of Most Human Protein-Coding Variants.” Nature 493, no. 7431 (2013): 216–20.
Gallup. “Evolution, Creationism, Intelligent Design.” http://www.gallup.com/poll/21814/evolution-creationism-intelligent-design.aspx (accessed June 22, 2014).
Giardina, E. et al. “Haplotypes in SLC24A5 Gene as Ancestry Informative Markers in Different Populations.” Current Genomics 9, no. 2 (2008): 110–14.
Glass, R. I. et al. “Predisposition for Cholera of Individuals with O Blood Group: Possible Evolutionary Significance.” American Journal of Epidemiology 121, no. 6 (1985): 791–96.
Goldenberg, D. M. The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.
Goldsmith, J. C. et al. “Framing the Research Agenda for Sickle Cell Trait: Building on the Current Understanding of Clinical Events and Their Potential Implications.” American Journal of Hematology 87, no. 3 (2012): 340–46.
Gottfredson, L. S. “Mainstream Science on Intelligence: An Editorial with 52 Signatories, History, and Bibliography.” Intelligence 24, no. 1 (1997): 13–23.
———. “What If the Hereditarian Hypothesis Is True?” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11, no. 2 (2005): 311–19.
Gould, S. J. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W. W. Norton, 1981.
———. The Mismeasure of Man. Rev. ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996.
Graham, G. S., and S. H. McCarty. “Sickle Cell (Meniscocytic) Anemia.” Southern Medical Journal 23 (1930): 598–606.
Green, R.E. et al. “A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome.” Science 328, no. 7929 (2010): 710–22.
Haitina, T. et al. “High Diversity in Functional Properties of Melanocortin 1 Receptor (MC1R) in Divergent Primate Species Is More Strongly Associated with Phylogeny than Coat Color.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 24, no. 9 (2007): 2001–2008.
Hammer, M. F. et al. “Population Structure of Y Chromosome SNP Haplogroups in the United States and Forensic Implications for Constructing Y Chromosome STR Databases.” Forensic Science International 164, no. 1 (2006): 45-55.
Head, T. “Interracial Marriage Laws: A Short Timeline History.” http://civilliberty.about.com/od/raceequalopportunity/tp/Interracial-Marriage-Laws-History-Timeline.htm (accessed May 14, 2013).
Healy, E. et al. “Functional Variation of MC1R Alleles from Red-Haired Individuals.” Human Molecular Genetics 10, no. 21 (2001): 2397–402.
Hedges, C., and J. Sacco. Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt. New York: Nation Books, 2012.
Hellenthal, G. et al. “A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History.” Science 343, no. 6172 (2014): 747–51.
Henn, B. M. et al. “Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations.” PLoS Genetics 8, no. 1 (2012): e1002397.
Hodges, L. “The Bell Curve Is Sending Shock Waves through America.” Times Higher Education, November 14, 1994. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=154396§ioncode=26 (accessed February 1, 2013).
Ingman, M. et al. “Mitochondrial Genome Variation and the Origin of Modern Humans.” Nature 408, no. 6828 (2000): 708–13.
Jablonski, N. G., and G. Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation as an Adaptation to UV Radiation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 107, suppl. 2 (2010): 8962–68.
James, A. “Making Sense of Race and Racial Classification.” In White Logic, White Methods: Racism and Methodology, edited by T. Zuberi et al., 31–45. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008.
Jarvis, J. P. et al. “Patterns of Ancestry, Signatures of Natural Selection, and Genetic Association with Stature in Western African Pygmies.” PLoS Genetics 8, no. 4 (2012): e1002641.
Jensen, A. R. “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?” Harvard Educational Review 39, no. 2 (1969): 165–96.
Jewish Virtual Library. “The Lebensborn Program (1935–1945).” http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Lebensborn.html (accessed July 16, 2012).
Johnson, C. N., and B. W. Brook. “Reconstructing the Dynamics of Ancient Human Populations from Radiocarbon Dates: 10,000 Years of Population Growth in Australia.” Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B 278 (2011): 3748–54.
Jolie, A. “My Medical Choice.” New York Times, May 14, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/14/opinion/my-medical-choice.html?_r=0 (accessed January 5, 2014).
Jorde, L. B., and S. P. Wooding. “Genetic Variation, Classification, and ‘Race.’” Nature Genetics 36 (2004): S28–S33.
Kaplan, N. L., P. O. Lewis, and B. S. Weir. “Age of the DF508 Cystic Fibrosis Mutation.” Nature Genetics 8 (1994): 216.
Keinan, A., and A. G. Clark. “Recent Explosive Human Population Growth Has Resulted in an Excess of Rare Genetic Variants.” Science 336, no. 6082 (2012): 740–43.
Everyone Is African Page 19
