From the surviving volumes of what was once a larger collection of works about the life and
accomplishments of Alexander, we now are left to craft an accurate, balanced, and convincing
biography of the great king. Our modern biography inevitably has been created out of scattered
references from lost contemporary or near-contemporary accounts of Alexander’s deeds, written by
authors who had their own agendas; from the fragments of material objects that have randomly
survived from the great rubbish heap of Alexander’s material world; and from later continuous
narratives, composed by authors of the Roman imperial period, who often saw in Alexander
reflections of their own complex, and, at times, savage emperors. Alexander’s Roman-era historians
or biographers clearly were influenced by their own backgrounds, educations, contemporary literary
traditions, and historical circumstances.
The art of creating an objective and persuasive representation of Alexander out of such a jumble of
sources is not a task for the faint of heart. Indeed, reconstructing what Alexander did (or did not do)
can be done plausibly only after a careful sifting and weighing of the value of all the pieces of
evidence provided by the sources for any given action of Alexander’s.
Abbreviations of Frequently Cited Texts in Notes
ANCIENT
Arrian Anabasis or Indike (when latter, title provided)
Athenaeus Deipnosophistae
Curtius Historiae
Diodorus Bibliotheke
Herodotus Histories
Justin Epitome
Plutarch Life of Alexander
Strabo Geographia
Xenophon Hellenica
MODERN
Anglim et al. (2002) S. Anglim, P. Jestice, R. Price, S. Rusch, and J. Serrati, Fighting Techniques of
the Ancient World, 3000 BC–AD 500 (New York, 2002).
Bosworth (1988) A. Bosworth, Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great
(Cambridge, 1988).
Brunt (1976) P. Brunt, Arrian, volume 1 (Cambridge, 1976).
Fuller (1960) J. Fuller, The Generalship of Alexander the Great (New Brunswick, 1960).
Greer (1969) R. Greer, Diodorus of Sicily, volume 9 (Cambridge, 1969).
Hammond (1997) N. Hammond, The Genius of Alexander the Great (Chapel Hill, 1997).
Hornblower (1983) S. Hornblower, The Greek World 479–323 BC (London, 1983).
Jacoby (1961) F. Jacoby, Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, second series, volume A
(Leiden, 1961).
Jacoby (1962) F. Jacoby, Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, second series, volume B
(Leiden, 1962).
Kuhrt (1995) A. Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BC, volumes 1 and 2 (London, 1995).
Lane Fox (1973) R. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great (London, 1973).
Oldfather (1961) C. Oldfather, Diodorus Siculus, volume 4 (Cambridge, 1961).
Pearson (1960) L. Pearson, The Lost Histories of Alexander the Great (New York, 1960).
Perrin (1958) B. Perrin, Plutarch’s Lives, volume 7 (Cambridge, 1958).
Pomeroy et al. (1999) S. Pomeroy, S. Burstein, W. Donlan, J. T. Roberts, Ancient Greece (Oxford,
1999).
Robson (1978) E. Robson, Arrian, volume 2 (Cambridge, 1978).
Scott-Kilvert (1973) I. Scott-Kilvert, The Age of Alexander (London, 1973).
Sélincourt (1971) A. de Sélincourt, The Campaigns of Alexander (London, 1971).
Sherman (1963) C. Sherman, Diodorus Siculus, volume 7 (Cambridge, 1963).
Stoneman (1991) R. Stoneman, The Greek Alexander Romance (London, 1991).
Van de Mieroop (2004) M. Van de Mieroop, A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 BC
(Oxford, 2004).
Welles (1963) C. Welles, Diodorus of Sicily, volume 8 (Cambridge, 1963).
Yardley (1984) J. Yardley, Quintus Curtius Rufus: The History of Alexander (London, 1984).
Yardley (1997) J. Yardley, Justin: Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, volume 1,
books 11–12, Alexander the Great (Oxford, 1997).
Notes
These “blind notes” are organized sequentially by chapter. The left column gives the page numbers in
the book to which the notes refer. To the right of the page numbers are cue phrases from the text or
(usually) the first few words of quoted sources. These cue phrases and quotes are in the order that
they appear on the pages of the book. After the cue phrases or quoted words, there are references to
the ancient sources or scholarly works from which the information is derived. Unless otherwise
noted, translations or summaries of sources are mine, based upon editions cited in the bibliography.
INTRODUCTION The Real Alexander
xv “mission from the deity” Tarn, W., “Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind,”
Proceedings of the British Academy 19 (1933), p. 127.
xv rages and violence O’Brien, J., Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy (London, 1992).
xv political terrorist Stalin As is certainly implied in at least some of the essays of E. Badian, one
of the most brilliant scholars of Alexander; e.g., in his article “Harpalus,” JHS 81 (1961), pp. 16–43
(in which Badian refers frequently to Alexander’s “reign of terror” against the governors of his
empire after his return from the East); and also in his seminal “Alexander the Great and the
Loneliness of Power,” Studies in Greek and Roman History (1968), pp. 192–205, in which (p. 200)
Badian compares the death in action of one of Alexander’s officers (Coenus), after he had played an
important role in a mutiny against Alexander at the Hyphasis River in 327 B.C.E., to the fate of the
World War II German general Erwin Rommel, who was given the choice of facing a firing squad or
committing suicide in 1944 after Hitler’s discovery that he had condoned a plot against the Führer’s
life. Elsewhere, e.g., “The Death of Parmenio,” TAPA 91 (1960), p. 324, Badian represents
Alexander more neutrally, as an autocrat, whose autocracy can and should be compared to the reigns
of other autocrats, such as Augustus or Napoleon. I am in complete agreement with the latter point of
view.
xv the ancient world Burn, A., Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic World, 2nd ed. (New York,
1962), pp. 203–210.
xv between 1519 and 1522 Bosworth, A., “A Tale of Two Empires: Hernán Cortés and Alexander
the Great,” in Bosworth, A., and E. Baynham, eds., Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction
(Oxford, 2002), pp. 23–49.
xvi who he was For a sketch of the main ancient sources for Alexander’s life, see Appendix :
Sources: Flacks, Hacks, and Historians.
xvi conquest, and empire This is perhaps clearest in the work of Bosworth, possibly the most
widely influential scholar of Alexander over the last fifty years.
xvii re-foundations of cities And those of his successors.
xvii the seventh century C.E. C.E. is the Common Era, or after the birth of Jesus Christ.
xviii aniketos– invincible Plutarch, 14.4, reports that before Alexander set off on his expedition
against Asia, he went to Delphi to consult the god concerning the endeavor, but he arrived on one of
the inauspicious days, when it was not lawful for the prophetess to deliver oracles. Alexander himself
tried to drag the prophetess to the temple (where she could give him an oracular response to his
question), at which point she proclaimed, “You are invincible, my son.”
CHAPTER 1 The Blood of Heroes
3 “I will when” Anecdote quoted in Thayer, A., Life
of Beethoven (London, 2001), p. 22, revised
by E. Forbes.
4 and a god Hamilton, J., “Alexander’s Early Life,” GaR 12 (1965), pp. 117–124.
4 Andromache and Neoptolemus Hammond (1997), pp. 64–65, for the family tree. Neoptolemus
subsequently had selected Andromache, the granddaughter of Priam, as his prize, as recounted in the
lost Iliu Persis, attributed to Arctinus or Lesches, which formed part of the so-called Epic Cycle; see
Hammond (1997), p. 64.
4 island of Samothrace Plutarch, 2.1.
4 the male spectators Plutarch, 2.6.
5 it disappeared Plutarch, 2.2.
5 bold and lion-like Plutarch, 2.3.
5 burned to the ground Plutarch, 3.3.
5 attending the birth Plutarch, 3.3.
5 would be invincible Plutarch, 3.5.
5 his parentage Plutarch, 3.2.
5 his ambitious nature Plutarch, 5.3.
5 “if I have kings” Plutarch, 4.5, translation from Scott-Kilvert (1973), p. 256.
5 nation’s military strength Plutarch, 5.1.
6 “Boys, my father” Plutarch, 5.2, translation from Scott-Kilvert (1973), p. 256.
6 thirteen talents Technically, a talent designated a weight of metal from which weight coins could
be minted. According to the Attic-Euboic standard, one talent equaled 60 minas or 25.86 kg of metal.
6 be led away Plutarch, 6.1.
6 “My boy, you” Plutarch, 6.5, translation from Scott-Kilvert (1973), p. 258.
7 Achilles’ old tutor Plutarch, 5.5.
7 with his incense Plutarch, 25.5.
8 parsimoniously with the gods Plutarch, 25.5.
8 formal disputation Plutarch, 7.3.
8 for Alexander Plutarch, 8.2.
8 along with a dagger Plutarch, 8.2.
8 spring of 334 Plutarch, 15.4.
8 of his fame Plutarch, 15.4.
8 his own death Iliad, 18.97–126.
8 would be near Iliad, 18.94–99.
9 “a handbook of” Plutarch, 8.2.
9 what he did For the individual style of fighting that dominates the narrative of the Iliad, see the
fascinating article by H. van Wees, “Homeric Warfare,” in A New Companion to Homer, ed. I.
Morris and B. Powell (Leiden, 1997), pp. 668–693.
9 plants or animals Plutarch, Moralia, 329 b–d. For an important discussion of the controversy
over whether Aristotle actually gave this advice to Alexander, see Isaac, B., The Invention of Racism
in Classical Antiquity (Princeton, 2004), pp. 298–302.
9 to their conquerors Isaac, B., The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity (Princeton, 2004),
pp. 175–181.
CHAPTER 2 Ahuramazda’s Plan
10 without a fight Herodotus, 7.132.1.
10 tokens of submission Herodotus, 7.132.1. Among the Boeotians, the Plataeans and Thespians
alone had refused to submit—and their cities were razed.
10 the pass at Thermopylae Herodotus, 7.224.1.
10 neared Athens 5,283,320 men, according to Herodotus, 7.186.2.
10 abandoned their city Herodotus, 8.41.1.
10 of Athena Polias Herodotus, 8.51.2.
10 “the wooden wall” Herodotus, 8.51.2.
10 Kekrops’ daughter Aglauros Herodotus, 8.53.1.
10 to the ground Herodotus, 8.53.2.
11 impiety in history Diodorus, 11.29.3.
11 of the “barbarians” Diodorus, 11.29.3.
11 half a century The fighting did not end officially until c. 450 and the controversial Peace of
Kallias; see Diodorus, 12.4.4.
11 first the Medes Centered around Ecbatana (modern Hamadan), in the north. In book 1, chapters
95–109, of his Histories, Herodotus tells the story of the development of the Median empire into Asia
Minor (including the encounter between the Median King Cyaxares and King Croesus of Lydia).
While historians are uncertain whether Herodotus’ tale corresponds to any historical reality, what is
clear is that the Medes were close neighbors of the Persians, spoke a similar language, and shared
some cultural similarities.
11 under Persian rule Kuhrt (1995), pp. 656–661. These conquests today would comprise the
larger parts of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.
11 in central Fars Located c. 75 km northwest of Anshan and named after Cyrus’ tribe; see Kuhrt
(1995), p. 661.
11 to the Persian empire Kuhrt (1995), pp. 661–664.
11 the empire’s frontiers Kuhrt (1995), pp. 664–670.
11 their great god The theme of Ahuramazda’s favor is sounded in royal inscriptions from the reign
of Darius I onward, including in the famous Behistun inscription that accompanied the relief of Darius
triumphing over the rebels against his rule. See Kuhrt (1995), p. 666.
11 protection of Ahuramazda In the Behistun inscription of Darius, translated and quoted by Van de
Mieroop (2004), p. 272.
12 “put down” Kuhrt (1995), pp. 676–678.
12 native goddess Cybele Herodotus, 5.97.1–102.3.
12 coast of Asia Herodotus, 6.32.1.
12 plundered and burned Herodotus, 6.19.1–3.
12 to the Ionians Herodotus, 6.43.4.
12 September 490 Herodotus, 6.108ff.
12 Athenian Acropolis was burned Kuhrt (1995), p. 671.
12 Straits of Salamis Herodotus, 8.84.1–96.2.
12 army on land Herodotus, 8.115.1.
12 Plataea in 479 Herodotus, 9.49.1–86.2.
13 out of Asia Minor The events from the departure of the “Medes” from Europe after Salamis,
Plataea, and Mycale to the beginnings of the Peloponnesian War are described by Thucydides,
1.89.1–117.3.
13 Persian king Darius II Xenophon, 1.5.1; rightly emphasized by Pomeroy et al. (1999), p. 317.
13 Artaxerxes II (405–359) Xenophon, 5.1.31.
13 against Sparta Xenophon, 5.4.34.
13 satisfy the Thebans Xenophon, 5.3.19–20.
13 hoplite infantry For the equipment, training, and tactics of hoplites, see chapter 3, p. 18ff.
13 at Leuctra Xenophon, 6.4.6–15; Hornblower (1983), p. 219.
13 depth of fifty shields Xenophon, 6.4.12.
13 oblique angle of attack So that the more heavily weighted left side of the Theban line met the
enemy first, before their center and right flank closed quarters with the enemy.
13 point of death Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas, 18.1–19.5; Hornblower (1983), p. 219.
13 the officer class Xenophon, 6.4.15.
14 sought their freedom Diodorus, 15.66.1–6; Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.14.5.
14 killed in the battle Xenophon, 7.5.18–27; Hornblower (1983), pp. 235–236.
14 Chios revolted in 357 Pomeroy et al. (1999), p. 342.
14 the alliance as well Hornblower (1983), p. 241ff.
14 Greek cities of Asia Minor Kuhrt (1995), pp. 674–675; Bosworth (1988), p. 17.
CHAPTER 3 The Emergence of a Superpower
15 slumbering superpower For general accounts, see Hammond, N., A History of Macedonia,
volume 1 (Oxford, 1972); Hammond, N., and G. Griffith, A History of Macedonia, volume 2 (Oxford,
1979); and Hammond, N., and F. Walbank, A History of Macedonia, volume 3 (Oxford, 1988), which
are fundamental for matters topographical and historical; also Ginouves, R., ed., Macedonia from
Philip II to the Roman Conquest (Princeton, 1994).
15 distinct geographical regions Herodotus, 7.173.1, 7.128.1, 8.137.1. Both Strabo, 7.11ff, and
Justin, 7.1.1–6, claim that Macedon formerly had been called Emathia (after a certain king Emathion)
and provide (not completely reliable) historical accounts of how the territory o
f Macedon came under
the rule of the Macedonian kings.
15 Illyria and Epirus Pomeroy et al. (1999), pp. 372–373.
15 enthusiastic wine drinkers As we shall see, during the campaigns in the east, Alexander and his
companions held a series of ritualized drinking parties, some of which ended in brawls and worse.
This was not simply the result of the hard fighting the Macedonians did in Asia; the Macedonian royal
court always had drunk heavily.
16 large population There are no census figures, but to judge by the size of the army that Alexander
was able to muster for his crossing into Asia (as well as the supply of fresh recruits who were sent
out periodically while Alexander was in Asia), the population of Macedonia was far larger than that
of any Greek city-state. In 336, for instance, the number of Companion infantrymen has been estimated
as 36,000 by Hammond (1997), p. 15. In 338 the troops of Boeotia, Athens, Megara, Corinth, and
Achaea who fought at the battle of Chaeronea numbered 35,000 combined.
16 fourth-century capital Xenophon, 5.2.13.
16 royal house of Macedonia Hammond (1997), p. 201.
16 Mount Pangaion Borza, E., In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon (Princeton,
1992), pp. 53–54. For the natural resources of Macedon in general, see Borza, E., “The natural
resources of early Macedonia,” in Philip II, Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Heritage, ed.
W. Adams and E. Borza (Washington, D.C., 1982), pp. 1–20.
16 Argead kings of Lower Macedon According to Strabo, 7.11ff., the Argeadae were the tribe who
were able to make themselves supreme in early Emathia, later Macedon. Justin, 7.2.2ff., gives a
different account of how the “Argead” name of the dynasty came into existence: on his deathbed, the
king Perdiccas indicated where he wanted to be buried and ordered that not only his bones but those
of his successors were to be interred there (in Aegae), declaring that the throne would stay in the
family as long as the remains of their descendants were buried there.
17 the Greek city-states For a general analysis, see Errington, R., “The Nature of the Macedonian
State Under the Monarchy,” Chiron 8 (1978), pp. 77–133.
17 Greek or not Pomeroy et al. (1999), p. 373.
17 all petitions Pomeroy et al. (1999), p. 375.
17 arbitrary or despotic In general, see the still-useful Lock, R., “The Macedonian Army Assembly
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