by Hal Herzog
Serpell, J. (1995). The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour, and Interactions with People. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
GENDER
Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The Essential Difference: The Truth about the Male and Female Brain. New York: Basic Books.
Donovan, J., and Adams, C. J. (1996). Beyond Animal Rights: A Feminist Caring Ethic for the Treatment of Animals. New York: Continuum.
Luke, B. (2007). Brutal: Manhood and the Exploitation of Animals. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
MEAT
Adams, C. J. (2000). The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory. New York: Continuum Publishing Group.
Eisnitz, G. A. (2007). Slaughterhouse: The Shocking Story of Greed, Neglect, and Inhumane Treatment Inside the U.S. Meat Industry. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Foer, J. S. (2009). Eating Animals. New York: Little, Brown and Company.
Maurer, D. (2002). Vegetarianism: Movement or Moment? Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Pollan, M. (2006). The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. New York: Penguin.
Singer, P., and Mason, J. (2006). The Ethics of What We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.
CHICKENS
Davis, K. (2009). Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned Eggs: An Inside Look at the Modern Poultry Industry. Summertown, TN: Book Publishing Company.
Dundes, A. (1994). The Cockfight: A Casebook. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Smith, P., and Daniel, C. (2000). The Chicken Book. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
MICE AND SCIENCE
Birke, L., Arluke, A., and Michael, M. (2008) The Sacrifice: How Scientific Experiments Transform Animals and People. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.
Blum, D. (1995). The Monkey Wars. New York: Oxford University Press.
Morrison, A. R. (2009). An Odyssey with Animals: A Veterinarian’s Reflections on the Animal Rights and Welfare Debate. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Rudacille, D. (2000). The Scalpel and the Butterfly: The War between Animal Research and Animal Protection. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
CONSISTENCY AND ETHICS
Balcombe, J. (2010). Second Nature: The Inner Lives of Animals. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
Bekoff, M., and Pierce, J. (2009). Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hauser, M. D. (2006). Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense of Right and Wrong. New York: Harper Collins.
Kazez, J. K. (2010). Animalkind: What We Owe to Animals. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Singer, P. (1990). Animal Liberation: A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals. New York: Avon.
Wynne, C. D. L. (2004). Do Animals Think? Prince ton, NJ: Prince ton University Press.
NOTES
Marc Bekoff speech to the Farm Sanctuary Hoe Down (www.farmsanctuary.org) in Orland, California, on May 16, 2009.
all members of the family Felidea eat flesh for a living Cats, unlike dogs, need meat to stay healthy. For a comparison between the nutritional needs of dogs and cats, see Legrand-Defretin, V. (1994). Differences between cats and dogs: A nutritional view. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 53, 15–24.
cats are recreational killers Crook, K. R., & Soule, M. E. (1999). Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinction in a fragmented system. Nature, 400, 563–566. Also see Woods, M., McDonald, R. A., & Harris, S. (2003). Predation of wildlife by domestic cats (Felis catus) in Great Britain. Mammal Review, 33(2), 174–188.
A group of Kansas cat owners Stuchhury, B. (2007) Silence of the songbirds: How we are losing the world’s songbirds and what we can do to save them. Toronto: Harper Collins.
bone in their penis The penis bone is called the baculum or os penis. Penis bones are found in many species of mammals, including primates. In different animals, these bones vary widely in size and shape. Why some species have big ones, others small ones, and some, including humans, none at all remains an evolutionary mystery. Ramm, S. A. (2007). Sexual selection and genital evolution in mammals: A phylogenetic analysis of baculum length. American Naturalist, 169, 360–369.
Four and a half million Americans are bitten by dogs Sacks, J. J., Kresnow, M., & Houston, B. (1996). Dog bites: How big a problem? Injury Prevention, 2(1), 52–54. Sacks, J. J., Sinclair, L., Gilchrist, J., Golab, G. C., & Lockwood, R. (2000). Breeds of dogs involved in fatal human attacks in the United States between 1979 and 1998. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 217(6), 836–840.
canine train wreck Serpell, J. A. (2003). Anthropomorphism and anthropomorphic selection: Beyond the “cute response.” Society & Animals, 11(1), 83–100.
back issues of sleazy supermarket tabloids Herzog, H. A., & Galvin, S. L. (1992). Animals, archetypes, and popular culture: Tales from the tabloid press. Anthrozoös, 5, 77–92.
the “troubled middle” Donnelley, S. (1989). Speculative philosophy, the troubled middle, and the ethics of animal experimentation. Hastings Center Report, 19, 15–21.
Clifton Flynn, sociologist Flynn, C. (2008). Social creatures: A human and animal studies reader. Brooklyn, NY: Lantern Books. (p. xiv).
several journals that publish our research The most prominent journals devoted to human-animal relationships are Anthrozoös and Society and Animals.
the International Society for Anthrozoology The organization’s Web site is www.isaz.net.
Animal-assisted therapy For an overview of recent research in animal-assisted therapy, see Fine, A. H. (ed.) (2008). Handbook on animal assisted-therapy: Theoretical foundation and guidelines for practice. New York: Elsevier.
forty-nine published studies of the effectiveness of AAT Nimer, J., & Lundahl, B. (2007). Animal-assisted therapy: a meta-analysis. Anthrozoös, 20 (3), 225–238.
the claims made about their curative powers are over the top. See, for example, Cochrane, A., & Callen, K. (1992). Dolphins and their power to heal. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press.
Hawthorne Works According to Jim Goodwin, an expert on the history of psychology, the Hawthorne studies had a little-known political subplot. The real purpose of the study may have been for management to portray factory workers as happy with their jobs and thus impede unionization. Goodwin, C. J. (2008). A history of modern psychology (3rd ed.). New York: J. Wiley.
A group of German researchers Brensing, K., Linke, K., & Todt, D. (2003). Can dolphins heal by ultrasound? Journal of Theoretical Biology, 225(1), 99–105.
They found that every one of them was methodologically flawed Marino, L., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (1998). Dolphin-assisted therapy: Flawed data, flawed conclusions. Anthrozoös, 11(4), 194–200. Marino, L., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2007). Dolphin-assisted therapy: More flawed data and more flawed conclusions. Anthrozoös, 20, 239–249. Tracy Humphries reached a similar conclusion. Humphries, T. L. (2003). Effectiveness of dolphin-assisted therapy as a behavioral intervention for young children with disabilities. Bridges, 1(6), 1–9.
suffered traumatic injuries Mazet, J. A., Hunt, T. D., & Zoccardi, M. H. (2004). Assessment of the risk of zoonotic disease transmission to marine mammal workers and the public. Final report. United States Marine Mammal Commission, RA No. K005486–01.
In a letter released by the Aruba Marine Mammal Foundation Smith, B. A. (2007). Letter of DAT founder. (Retrieved August 28, 2008.) www.arubammf.com/truth_about_dolphin_assisted_therapy
Save your money; save a dolphin For an engaging overview of the relationships between humans and dolphins, see Kudzinski, K. M., & Frohoff, T. (2008). Dolphin mysteries: Unlocking the secrets of communication. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
do people really look like their dogs Coren, S. (1999). Do people look like their dogs? Anthrozoös, 12, 111–114. Roy, M. M., & Christenfeld, N. J. (2004). Do dogs resemble their owners? Psychological Science, 15(5), 361–363. Payne, C., & Jaffe, K. (2005). Self seeks like: Many humans choose their dog pets following rules
used for assortative mating. Journal of Ethology, 23(1), 15–18; Devlin, K. (April 3, 2009) Dog owners do look like their pets, say psychologists. Telegraph (London); Nakajima, S., Yamamoto, M., & Yoshimoto, N. (2009). Dogs look like their owners: Ratings of dogs with racially homogenous owner portraits. Anthrozoös, 22(2), 173–181.
Some of our tastes reveal aspects of our personality, but others do not Gosling’s approach to research is a creative mix of evolutionary psychology, personality theory, and animal behavior. You can keep up with his latest research at the Gozlab Web site: homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/gosling/index.htm.
Gosling and Anthony Podberscek Podberscek, A. L., & Gosling, S. D. (2005). Personality research on pets and their owners: Conceptual issues and review. In A. Podberscek, E. S. Paul, & J. A. Serpell (eds.), Companion animals and us: Exploring the relationships between people and pets (pp. 143–167). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
527 cat people had taken the personality test Gosling, S. Sandy, C. J., & Potter, J. (in press). Personalities of self-identified “dog people” and “cat people.” Anthrozoös
Some scientists believe that roots of cruelty lie in our evolutionary history Victor Nell, for example, argues that cruelty is the natural extension of human predatory instincts. Nell, V. (2006). Cruelty’s rewards: The gratifications of perpetrators and spectators. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 211–224.
The anthropologist Margaret Mead wrote This quote is cited on page 80 of Lockwood, R., & Hodge, G. R. (1998). The tangled web of animal abuse: The links between cruelty to animals and human violence. In R. Lockwood & F. R. Ascione (eds.), Cruelty to animals and interpersonal violence (pp. 77–82). West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.
Others, however, are not so sure For an introduction to this topic see the articles in Lockwood, R., & Ascione, F. R. (1998). Cruelty to animals and interpersonal violence: Readings in research and application. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. For a review of current research in this area see Ascione, F. R., & Shapiro, K. (2009). People and animals, kindness and cruelty: Research directions and policy implications. Journal of Social Issues, 65, 569–587
Alan Felthous, a psychiatrist and Stephen Kellert Felthous, A. R., & Kellert, S. R. (1986). Violence against animals and people: Is aggression against living creatures generalized? The Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 14(1), 55–69.
“I beat a puppy, I believe simply from enjoying the power.” This quote is found in Blakemore, C. (February 12, 2009) Darwin understood the need for animal tests. Times (London) Online. www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article5711912.ece
presentations by Link advocates often begin with tales of tragedy See, for example, Lockwood, R., & Hodge, G. R. (1998). The tangled web of animal abuse: The links between cruelty to animals and human violence. In R. Lockwood & F. R. Ascione (ed.), Cruelty to animals and interpersonal violence (pp. 77–82). West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.
354 cases of serial murders The researchers in this study found that 21% of the 354 serial killers had a history of animal abuse. Most studies of male college students have also found animal abuse in the 20% to 30% range. The serial killer data is reported in Wright, J., & Hensley, C. (2003). From animal cruelty to serial murder: Applying the graduation hypothesis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 71–88.
school shootings The claim that all school shooters have a history of animal abuse is made by the National District Attorneys Association (communities. justicetalking.org/blogs/day17/archive/2007/08/14/animal-abuse-its-association-with-other-violent-crimes.aspx). For the actual profile of school shooters, see Vossekuil, B., Fein, R., Reddy, M., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2000). The final report and findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the prevention of school attacks in the United States. Washington, DC: United States Secret Service.
A stronger version of Link thinking is the violence graduation hypothesis This idea is sometime referred to as the progression thesis. Beirne, P. (2004). From animal abuse to interhuman violence? A critical review of the progression thesis. Society and Animals, 12(1), 39–65.
A group of researchers led by Arnold Arluke Arluke, A., Levin, J., Luke, C., & Ascione, F. (1999). The relationship of animal abuse to violence and other forms of antisocial behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(9), 963–975.
the numbers do not support the idea Patterson-Kane, E. G., & Piper, H. (2009). Animal abuse as a sentinel for human violence: A critique. Journal of Social Issues. Lea, S. R. G. (2007). Delinquency and animal cruelty: Myths and realities about social pathology. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing, LLC.
The students he interviewed had poisoned fish Arluke, A. (2002). Animal abuse as dirty play. Symbolic Interaction, 25(4), 405–430.
One recent study Gupta, M. E. (2006). Understanding the links between intimate partner violence and animal abuse: Prevalence, nature, and function. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.
A growing number of researchers See, for example, Piper, H. (2003). The linkage of animal abuse with interpersonal violence: A sheep in wolf’s clothing? Journal of Social Work, 3(2), 161–176. Irvine, L. (2008). Delinquency and animal cruelty: Myths and realities about social pathology. Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews, 37(3), 267–268. Taylor, N., & Signal, T. (2008). Throwing the baby out with the bathwater: Towards a sociology of the human-animal abuse ‘Link’? Sociological Research Online, 13(1). www.socresonline.org.uk/13/1/2.html.
“Animals are good to think with.” Levi-Strauss, C. (1966). The savage mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
It’s easier to empathize Greene, E S. (1995). Ethnocatetgories, social intercourse, fear, and redemption: Comment on Laurent. Society and Animals, 3(1), 79–88.
cuteness doesn’t count Cohen, R. (July 19, 2009). The ethicist: Nesting blues. New York Times.
decisions of ant colonies Edwards, S. C., & Pratt, S. C. (2009). Rationality in collective decision making by ant colonies. Proceedings of the Royal Society: B. 276(1673) 3655–3671.
biophilia Wilson, E. O. (1984). Biophilia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. The study of infants is found in Deloache, J. S., & Pickard. (in press). How very young children think about animals. The animate monitoring hypothesis is found in New, H., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2007). Category-specific attention for animals reflects ancestral priorities, not experience. PNAS, 104(42), 16598–16603.
Bambi is the classic example of how easily we are manipulated by instinctive baby releasers Lutts, R. H. (1992). The trouble with Bambi: Walt Disney’s Bambi and the American vision of nature. Forest and Conservation History, 36, 160–171. Cartmill, M. (1993). A view to death in the morning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Stephen Jay Gould, the late Harvard biologist who traced Mickey’s evolution, said it best Gould, S. J. (1979). Mickey Mouse meets Konrad Lorenz. Natural History, 88(5), 30–36.
a rattlesnake bite on the end of his tongue Gerkin, R., Sergent, K. C., Curry, S. C., Vance, M., Nielsen, D. R., & Kazan, A. (1987). Life-threatening airway obstruction from rattlesnake bite to the tongue. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 16(7), 813–816.
snake fears for research on snake fears, see Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The malicious serpent: Snakes as a prototypical stimulus for an evolved module of fear. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. LoBue, V., & DeLoache, J. S. (2008). Detecting the snake in the grass: Attention to fear-relevant stimuli by adults and young children. Psychological Science, 19(3), 284–289. DeLoache, J. S., & LoBue, V. (2009). The narrow fellow in the grass: Human infants associate snakes and fear. Developmental Science, 12(1), 201–207. Diamond, J. (1993). New Guineans and their natural world. In Kellert & Wilson (eds.), The biophilia hypothesis (pp. 251–271). Washington, DC: Island Press. Burghardt, G. N., Murphy, J. B., Chiszar, D., & Hutchins, M. (2009). Combating ophidophobia: Origins, treatment
, education and conservation tools. In S. J. Mullin & R. A. Seigel (eds). Snakes: Ecology and conservations. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing.
“Biophilia,” he wrote, “is not a single instinct” Wilson, E. O. (1993). Biophilia and the conservation ethic. In S. R. Kellert & E. O. Wilson (eds.) The biophilia hypothesis (p. 31–41). Washington, DC: Island Press. (p. 31).
Animal words permeate human language The classic essay on the influence of animal words on language is Leach, E. R. (1964). Anthropological aspects of language: Animal categories and verbal abuse. In E. Lenneberg (ed.), New directions in the study of language (pp. 23–63). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
fell in love with a beagle puppy This case is described in Herzog, H. (2002). Ethical aspects of the relationship between humans and research animals. ILAR Journal, 43, 27–32. All of the laboratory animal technicians that I interviewed for this research had adopted research animals.
The human propensity for categorizing animals Grief, M. L., Nelson, D. G. K., Keil, F. C., & Gutierrez, T. (2006). What do children want to know about animals and artifacts? Psychological Science, 17, 455–459.
blind from birth Mahone, B. Z., Anzellotti, S., Schwarzbach, J., Zampini, M., & Caramazza, A. (2009). Category-specific organization of the human brain does not require visual experience. Neuron, 63, 397–405.
human brain evolved to specialize The idea of domain-specific knowledge is controversial among neuroscientists. For contrasting views see Caramazza, A., & Shelton, J. R. (1998). Domain-specific knowledge system in the brain: The animate–inanimate distinction. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 1–34 and Gerlach, C. (2007). A review of functional imaging studies on category specificity. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 296–314.
“sociozoologic scale” Arluke, A., & Sanders, C. (1996). Regarding animals. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
In Japan, attitudes toward creepy-crawlies are more complex Laurent, E. L. (2001). Mushi: For youngsters in Japan, the study of insects has been both a fad and a tradition. Natural History, 110(2), 70–75.
