Some We Love, Some We Hate, Some We Eat

by Hal Herzog

  creatures that are cute Sprengelmeyer, R., Perrett, D., Fagan, E., Cornwell, R., Lobmaier, J., Sprengelmeyer, A., et al. (2009). The cutest little baby face: A hormonal link to sensitivity to cuteness in infant faces. Psychological Science, 20(2), 149–154; Fridlund, A., & MacDonald, M. (1998). Approaches to Goldie: A field study of human approach responses to canine juvenescence. Anthrozoös, 11, 95–100.

  Stephen Kellert of Yale University Kellert, S. R. (1996). The value of life: Biological diversity and human society. Washington, DC: Island Press.; Kellert, S. R., & Berry, J. K. (1987). Attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors toward wildlife as affected by gender. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 15(3), 363–371.

  phobias of creatures like snakes and spiders Fredrikson, M., Annas, P., Fischer, H. Å., & Wik, G. (1996). Gender and age differences in the prevalence of specific fears and phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(1), 33–39.

  felt about using dogs and chimpanzees in experiments Pifer, L., Shimizu, K., & Pifer, R. (1994). Public attitudes toward animal research: Some international comparisons. Society and Animals, 2(2), 95–113.

  Swedish researchers Hagelin, J., Carlsson, H. E., & Hau, J. (2003). An overview of surveys on how people view animal experimentation: Some factors that may influence the outcome. Public Understanding of Science, 12(1), 67.

  the National Opinion Research Center This data is from the 1993 General Social Survey.

  Victorian era animal rights crusaders French, R. D. (1975). Antivivisection and medical science in Victorian society. Prince ton, NJ: Prince ton University Press.

  Women dominate nearly every aspect of grassroots animal protection While women make up the bulk of grassroots animal activists, this is not true of the leadership of the animal rights movement. For example, women are under-represented among lists and biographical indexes of the movers and shakers of the animal protection movement. See Herzog, H. (November 1999) Power, money and gender: Status hierarchies and the animal protection movement in the United States. International Society of Anthrozoology Newsletter, 2–5.

  that 70% of the battered women Ascione, F. (1998). Battered women’s reports of their partners’ and their children’s cruelty to animals. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 1(1), 119–133. Similar results were reported in a study of battered women in South Carolina; see Flynn, C. P. (2000). Woman’s best friend: Pet abuse and the role of companion animals in the lives of battered women. Violence against Women, 6(2), 162–177. For a recent review, see Ascione, F. R., et al. (2007). Battered pets and domestic violence: Animal abuse reported by women experiencing intimate violence and by non-abused women. Violence against Women, 13, 354–373.

  The data at Pet-abuse.com The person who realized that Pet-abuse.com offered a window into the demographics of animal cruelty was Kathy Gerbasi, a developmental psychologist; see Gerbasi, K. C. (2004). Gender and nonhuman animal cruelty convictions: Data from www.pet-abuse.com. Society and Animals, 12(4), 359–365. These statistics were downloaded from www.pet-abuse.com in January 2009.

  “The Great Bunny Rescue of 2006” Weise, E. (August 8, 2006). Rabbit rescue ends some bad hare days. USAToday.

  public health implication of animal hoarding Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium (2002). Health implications of animal hoarding. Health & Social Work, 27(2), 125–132.

  explanations of why people hoard animals Patronek, G., Loar, L., & Nathanson, J. N. (2006). Animal hoarding: Structuring interdisciplinary responses to help people, animals, and communities at risk. Boston: Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium.

  caused by toxoplasmosis infection Sklott, R. (December 9, 2007). “Cat Lady” conundrum. New York Times.

  animal hoarding is caused by dementia The most common theory is that animal hoarding is a type of obsessive compulsive disorder. However, the validity of this view has recently been questioned; see Patronek, G. (2007). Animal hoarding: What caseworkers need to know. Paper presented at the MassHousing Community Services Conference, Boston, MA.

  The recidivism rate among hoarders Miller, S. (January/February 2008). Objects of their affection: The hidden world of hoarders. Best Friends Magazine, 20–22, 57–61. Non-animal hoarding has been linked to damage to the prefrontal cortex of the brain; see Anderson, S. W., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. (2005). A neural basis for collecting behaviour in humans. Brain, 128(1), 201–212. No one has tested the possibility that animal hoarding can be caused by brain damage.

  other director is in the wrong line of work For an ethnographic study of how animal shelter workers cope with the paradox of loving animals and killing them see Arluke, A. (2006). Just a dog: Understanding animal cruelty and ourselves. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

  some social scientists See, for example, Adams, C. J. (2002). The sexual politics of meat: A feminist-vegetarian critical theory. New York: Continuum Publishing. Donovan, J., & Adams, C. J. (eds.) (2007). The feminist care tradition in animal ethics. New York: Columbia University Press.

  almost every human culture The examples of women hunters in tribal society are from Estioko-Griffin, A., & Griffin, P. B. (1981). Woman the hunter: The Agta. In F. Dahlbrg (ed.), Woman the gatherer (pp. 121–140). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Bailey, R. C., & Aunger, R. (1989). Net hunters vs. archers: Variation in women’s subsistence strategies in the Ituri forest. Human Ecology, 17(3), 273–297.; Romanoff, S. (1983). Women as hunters among the Matses of the Peruvian amazon. Human Ecology, 11(3), 339–343; Goodman, M. J., Griffin, P. B., Estioko-Griffin, A. A., & Grove, J. S. (1985). The compatibility of hunting and mothering among the Agta hunter-gatherers of the Philippines. Sex Roles, 12(11), 1199–1209.

  In nearly all human societies Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 699–727.

  the result of socialization Quinn, P. C., & Liben, L. S. (2008). A sex difference in mental rotation in young infants. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1067–1070. Moore, D. S., & Johnson, S. P. (2008). Mental rotation in infants. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1063–1066. Williams, C. L., & Pleil, K. E. (2008). Toy story: Why do monkey and human males prefer trucks? Comment on “Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children” by Hassett, Siebert, and Wallen. Hormones and Behavior, 54, 355–358. Rakison, D. H. (2009). Does women’s greater fear of snakes and spiders originate in infancy? Evolution and Human Behavior. 30, 438–444.

  empathy Taylor, N., & Signal, T. (2005). Empathy and attitudes to animals. Anthrozoös. 18(1), 18–27. For a review of the literature on the connection between love of pets and love of people, see Paul, E. S. (2000). Love of pets and love of people. In A. Podberscek, E. S. Paul & J. A. & Serpell (eds.), Companion animals and us: Exploring the relationships between people and animals. (pp. 168–186). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

  makes men more generous with their money Domes, G., Heinrichs, M., Michel, A., Berger, C., & Herpertz, S. C. (2007). Oxytocin improves “Mind-reading” in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 61(6), 731–733.; Zak, P. J., Stanton, A. A., & Ahmadi, S. (2007). Oxytocin increases generosity in humans. PLoS ONE, 2(11), e1128.

  Is oxytocin the glue Odendaal, J. S. J., & Meintjes, R. (2003). Neurophysiological correlates of affiliative behaviour between humans and dogs. The Veterinary Journal, 165(3), 296–301. Miller, S. C., Kennedy, C., DeVoe, D., Hickey, M., Nelson, T., & Kogan, L. (2009). An examination of changes in oxytocin levels in men and women before and after interaction with a bonded dog. Anthrozoös, 22(1), 31–42. Nagasawa, M., Kikusui, T., Onaka, T., & Ohta, M. (2009). Dog’s gaze at its owner increases owner’s urinary oxytocin during social interaction. Hormones and Behavior, 55(3), 434–441. The study showing no effect of oxytocin, as is often the case with negative results, has not been published even though there were plenty of subjects and the lead researcher is a well-known anthrozoologist. (Personal communication, Rebecca Johnson, January 3, 2010.)

  more aggressive and the less empathetic you a
re Harris, J. A., Rushton, J. P., Hampson, E., & Jackson, D. N. (1996). Salivary testosterone and self-report aggressive and pro-social personality characteristics in men and women. Aggressive Behavior, 22(5), 321–331.

  Height is a good example I first realized the implications of mathematics of overlapping bell curves after reading Gladwell’s New Yorker article. However, the example using height is taken from Steven Pinker’s excellent discussion of the bell curve in The Blank Slate.

  anorexia Hoek, H. W., & van Hoeken, D. (2003). Review of the prevalence and incidence of eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 34(4), 383–396.

  Cleveland Amory In Dundes, A. (1994). The cockfight: A casebook. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. (p. 71).

  Captain L. Fitz-Barnard Fitz-Barnard, L. (1921). Fighting sports. London: Oldam Press. (p. 12).

  a fifty-year-old black man In the late 1970s, the rooster fights were probably the most integrated Saturday night activity in Madison County. While most of the spectators and participants were white, Doc was the highest-status referee, and it was common to find a few blacks mingling among the spectators and rooting for the chickens they had money on. At one point during my research, a couple of outside organizers for the Ku Klux Klan tried to stage a rally in the county. They initially approached the chair of the county school board about having the rally at the high school, but were rebuffed. The owner of the cock pit was more accommodating. The outsiders dressed up in their silly white robes and held their meeting at the pit. Hardly anyone showed up except the documentary photographer Rob Amberg, and the racists left town the next day, having accomplished nothing. However, no one bothered to take down the KKK rally announcements that were posted around the pit. When I attended a derby a few weeks later, Doc was still the referee and the black guys from Asheville were placing bets just like everyone else. No one but me seemed to notice the KKK signs. This easy mixing of races was similarly characteristic of cockfights in Louisiana. See Maunula, M. (2007). Of chickens and men: Cockfighting in the South. Southern Cultures, 13(4), 76–85.

  Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead wrote For a compendium of historical and anthropological writings on the significance of cockfighting in different cultures see Dundes, A. (1994). The cockfight: A casebook. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. In addition, there are several fictional treatments of cockfighting and cockfighting culture. These include West, N. (1995). Day of the locust. New York: Bantam Books. Willeford, C. E. (1987). Cockfighter. New York: Creative Arts Books. Manley, F. (1998). The cockfighter. Minneapolis: Coffee House Press. For essays on cockfighting as cultural phenomena see Bilger, B. (2000). Noodling for flatheads: Moonshine, monster catfish, and other Southern comforts. New York: Touchstone; and Crews, H. (1977). Cockfighting: An unfashionable view. Esquire, 87, 8, 12, 14.

  “homoerotic male battle with masturbatory nuances.” Dundes, A. (1994). The gallus as phallus. In A. Dundes, The cockfight: A casebook. (pp. 241–281). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. (p. 262.)

  oldest and most widespread of traditional sports For a history of cockfighting see Smith, P., & Daniel, C. (2000). The chicken book. Athens: University of Georgia Press.

  the basic set of guidelines, referred to as Wortham’s Rules Wortham’s Rules apply to the gaff fights that were preferred by Appalachian cockfighters. Hispanic cockfighters typically use a different set of rules.

  a Platonic concept of hate.” Geertz, C. (1994). Deep play: Notes on the Balinese cockfight. In A. Dundes (ed), The cockfight: A casebook. (p. 103). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

  the sociologist Clifton Bryant estimated Bryant, C. (1991). Deviant leisure and clandestine lifestyle: Cockfighting as a socially disvalued sport. World Leisure and Recreation, 33(2), 17–21.

  Captain L. Fitz-Barnard writes Fitz-Barnard, L. (1921). Fighting sports. London: Oldam Press. (p. 12).

  120 million wild birds shot by hunters Klem, D. (1991). Glass and bird kills. An overview and suggested planning and design methods for preventing a fatal hazard. In L. W. Adams & D. L. Leedy (eds.). Wildlife conservation in metropolitan environments. (pp. 99–103). Columbia, MD: National Institute for Urban Wildlife.

  most cockfighters I met did not approve of dogfighting Suzie, the Louisiana animal protectionist, agrees with Eddy’s wife that the cultures of cockfighting and of dogfighting are different. In her experience, you are much more likely to find pornography, drugs, and large sums of money when raiding the homes of urban dogfighters than rural cockfighters.

  the Humane Society of the United States links cockfighting with www.hsus.org/acf/fighting/cockfight/ cockfighting_and_related_crimes.html. Some of these charges are true. Illegal gambling (and hence tax evasion) is part of virtually every cockfight. I do not doubt that now, as was the case back in the 1970s, some local officials are paid by pit owners to turn a blind eye, and that the influx of Hispanic cockfighters has meant more illegal immigrants show up at the pits.

  That’s what’s kept me interested in it. The quote is by Bobby Keener of Greensboro, North Carolina. It is from the DVD Cockfighters, an eight-hour series of interviews with cockfighters produced by Olena Media (www.olenamedia.com/).

  he wrote in Grit and Steel McCaghy, C. H., & Neal, A. G. (1974). The fraternity of cockfighters: Ethical embellishments of an illegal sport. Journal of Popular Culture, 8(3), 557–569. (p. 74).

  Cocks are not usually fought until they are two years old Younger cocks are sometimes fought in matches called stag fights.

  Karen Davis, the founder of United Poultry Concerns For Karen’s perspective on the treatment of chickens, see Davis, K. (2009). Prisoned chickens, poisoned eggs: An inside look at the modern poultry industry. Summertown, TN: Book Publishing Company.

  two corporate giants, Tyson Foods and Upjohn In 1994 Tyson bought out 100% of the Upjohn stock.

  their trip to the processing plant For an exposé of the treatment of chickens and other animals in American slaughterhouses, see Eisnitz, G. A. (2007). Slaughterhouse: The shocking story of greed, neglect, and inhumane treatment inside the U.S. meat industry. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.

  the neck cutting machine Controlled atmosphere killing (CAK) is an alternative to electrical stunning and death by neck-cutting machine. CAK is essentially a gas chamber in which birds are exposed either to a stunning or lethal dose of carbon dioxide or an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen. The Humane Society of the United States recommends CAK as a more humane alternative to electrical stunning. The National Chicken Council disagrees. See Shields, S., & Raj, M. (no date). An HSUS report. The welfare of birds at slaughter. The Humane Society of the United States. See also Savage, C. (February 17, 2009). No advantage to gas-based stunning for chickens. Meat & Poultry.

  An efficient production system with two evisceration lines will process 140 birds per minute Bell, D. D., & Weaver, W. D. (2001). Commercial chicken meat and egg production. New York: Springer (p. 903). Even when birds are killed by hand, as in the case of Kosher slaughter, the rate of production is astounding. Wabeck indicates that one worker should be able to slit the throats of 4,000 birds per hour in Bell, D. D., & Weaver, W. D. (2001).

  Some birds are not completely stunned Karen Davis of United Poultry International argues that the stunning procedure is ineffective and was not developed to reduce suffering. In an email to me, she wrote, “The purposes of administering electricity to the bodies of birds in the slaughterhouse is not electrocution—to kill them outright—but merely muscle paralysis to facilitate feather removal and keep the birds still on the conveyer belt. Stunning was never designed to be a ‘humane’ method. It was designed in the 1930s for strictly commercial purposes—a technological ‘upgrade’ from paralyzing birds through the roof of their mouths to their brains with a knife or other sharp object.” Her view is supported by Charles Wabeck who wrote the chapter on broiler processing in Bell, D. D., & Weaver, W. D. (2001). Commercial chicken meat and egg production. New York: Springer. Wabeck writes, “Stunning is essential for satisfacto
ry bleeding and feather release” (p. 904). Nowhere in his section on killing is the issue of animal welfare discussed.

  cockfighting became illegal in every state Cockfighting, however, remains legal in the American territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, Samoa, and the Virgin Islands.

  The eighteenth-century movement against blood sports See Thomas, K. (1983). Man and the natural world: A history of the modern sensibility. New York: Pantheon.

  essay that appeared in the Atlanta Journal Constitution Rudy, K. (September 6, 2007). Dog-fighting and Michael Vick. Atlanta Journal Constitution.

  You see the same thing in thoroughbred racing McMurray, J. (June 14, 2008). AP finds 5K horse deaths since ’03. Washingtonpost.com.

  You ask me why I refuse to eat flesh Coetzee, J. M. (2003). Elizabeth Costello. New York: Penguin Books.

  sixfold in Japan and fifteenfold in China Halweil, B., & Nierenberg, D. (2008). Meat and seafood: The global diet’s most costly ingredients. In Worldwatch Institute (ed.), 2008 State of the World: Innovation for a sustainable economy (pp. 61–74). Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.

  less about your cholesterol than your sanity Bruni, F. (May 20, 2009). Beef and décor, aged to perfection. New York Times.

  Chimpanzees, our closest living relatives, love the taste of meat For more information on chimpanzee carnivory, see Stanford, C. B. (1999). The hunting ape: Meat eating and the origins of human behavior. Prince ton, NJ: Prince ton University Press. Stanford, C. (2002). Significant others: The ape-human continuum and the quest for human nature. New York: Basic Books. Boesch, C. (1994). Hunting strategies of Gombe and Taï chimpanzees. In R. W. Wrangham, W. C. McGrew, F. B. M. de Waal, & P. G. Heltne (eds.), Chimpanzee cultures (pp. 76–92). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Foley, R. (2001). The evolutionary consequences of increased carnivory. In C. B. Stanford & H.T. Bunn (eds)., Meat-eating and human evolution (pp. 305–331). New York: Oxford University Press. The exchange of meat for sex is described in Gomes, C. M., & Boesch, C. (2009). Wild chimpanzees exchange meat for sex on a long-term basis. PLoS ONE, 4, e5116.