9 Quoted in Manchester, American Caesar, 459.
10 Bix, Hirohito, 481.
11 Linwood B. Crider, personal testimony, EC; interview with Linwood Crider by DLM.
12 Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 182; 11th Airborne historian quoted in ibid.
13 Quoted in Manchester, American Caesar, 475.
14 “The Battle Begins for Luzon,” Life (January 22, 1945), 19.
15 Quoted in Guillain, I Saw Tokyo Burning, 189.
16 Quoted in Rafael Steinberg, Return to the Philippines (New York: Time-Life Books. 1979), 114. For the Cabanatuan raid, see Forrest B. Johnson, Hour of Redemption: The Ranger Raid on Cabanatuan (New York: Manor Books, 1979); and Hampton Sides, Ghost Soldiers: The Forgotten Epic Story of World War II’s Most Dramatic Mission (New York: Doubleday, 2001).
17 Carl Mydans, “My God! It’s Carl Mydans,” Life (February 19, 1945), 20.
18 New York Times, “Week in Review” (February 11, 1945).
19 Nurses quoted in Norman, We Band of Angels, 203-4.
20 Mydans, “My God!” 98.
21 Quoted in Norman, We Band of Angels, 204.
22 Mydans, “My God!” 98-101.
23 Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 194-95.
24 James, Years of MacArthur, vol. 1, 626-35.
25 H. N. Oliphant, “How the Jap Soldier Thought,” 22.
26 Fred Nixon, written testimony, EC.
27 Tenney interview with Lou Reda Productions.
28 Manchester, American Caesar, 413.
29 Carlos Romulo, I See the Philippines Rise (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1946), 229.
30 Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 198-89.
31 Lieutenant Colonel Luis M. Burris, edited by Carol Heckman-Owen, “Blazing Trails with ‘D’ Battery in the War Against Japan,” ms at EC.
32 Quoted in Norman, We Band of Angels, 213.
33 Burris, “Blazing Trails.”
34 “MacArthur Is Home,” Life (April 9, 1945), 31.
35 Manchester, American Caesar, 500.
36 Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road, 166.
37 Both quotations on the trials from Manchester, American Caesar, 569, 571.
38 Quoted in Stephen E. Ambrose, American Heritage New History of World War II, original text by C. L. Sulzberger (New York: Viking, 1997), 530.
CHAPTER 7: THE B-29S
1 Guillain, I Saw Tokyo Burning, 191.
2 I.J. Galantin, Take Her Deep!: A Submarine Against Japan in World War II (Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books, 1987), 208-9.
3 Quoted in William Bradford Huie, “The Navy’s Seabees,” Life (October 9, 1944), 52; interview with Lou Reda by DLM. Reda served in the Seabees in the Pacific in World War II.
4 St. Clair McKelway, “A Reporter with the B-29s, IV—The People,” The New Yorker (June 30, 1945), 35, 37-38, 40-43.
5 Charles W. Sweeney, War’s End: An Eyewitness Account of America’s Last Atomic Mission (New York: Avon, 1997), 43-44; Jacob Vander Meulen, Building the B-29 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1995).
6 Interview with Harry George, Lou Reda Productions. Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations by B-29 crew members are from interviews conducted by Mark Natola, some of them for Lou Reda Productions, and by DLM.
7 McKelway, “B-29s, IV,” 40-41.
8 Interview with General James V. Edmundson, Lou Reda Productions.
9 Robert Morgan with Ron Powers, The Man Who Flew the Memphis Belle: Memoirs of a World War II Bomber Pilot (New York: Dutton, 2001), 298.
10 General Curtis E. LeMay with MacKinlay Kantor, Mission with LeMay (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), 332.
11 Ibid., 322.
12 St. Clair McKelway, “A Reporter with the B-29s, I—Possum, Rosy, and the Thousand Kids,” The New Yorker (June 9, 1945), 28. The primary sources on the bombing of Japan are at the National Archives, which houses the main records of the Twentieth Air Force and the files of the United States Strategic Bombing Survey; the Curtis LeMay and Henry “Hap” Arnold papers are in the Library of Congress’s Manuscript Room; the United States Air Force Historical Research Agency at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, has extensive citations of unit histories and is the world’s finest archive for the statistical accounts of the Army Air Forces in World War II. I used all of the above sources for this book and for a book I am writing about the U.S. Eighth Air Force in World War II.
13 Quoted in Kenneth P. Werrell, Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers Over Japan During World War II (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996), 133.
14 Morgan, Memphis Belle, 292.
15 John Ciardi, Saipan: The War Diary of John Ciardi (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1988), 35. Other excellent memoirs are Earl Snyder, General Leemy’s Circus (New York: Exposition Press, 1955); Chester Marshall, Sky Giants Over Saipan (Winona, Mo.: Apollo, 1984); Kevin Herber, Maximum Effort (Manhattan, Ks.: Sunflower, 1983); and Van Parker, Dear Folks (Memphis, Tenn.; Global, 1989).
16 Morgan, Memphis Belle, 288.
17 John Ciardi in Terkel, “The Good War,” 201.
18 Ciardi, Saipan, 40.
19 Ciardi in Terkel, “The Good War,” 200.
20 Ciardi, Saipan, 44, 58, 83, 90-94, 99-101.
21 Ibid., 93, 99-100.
22 Morgan, Memphis Belle, 303.
23 LeMay, Mission, 345.
24 Ciardi in Terkel, “The Good War,” 200.
25 Ibid, 276.
26 Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., Slaughterhouse-Five, or The Children’s Crusade (New York: Dell. 1969), 128-31, 153-54.
27 Ciardi, Saipan, xi, 97, 103.
28 Knox Burger, “Tokyo Fire Raid,” in “Yank,” the GI Story of the War, 274-76.
29 Quoted in Keith Wheeler, Bombers Over Japan (Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1982), 168.
30 Interview with Robert Morgan by DLM, July 26, 2003; Morgan, Memphis Belle, 311.
31 St. Clair McKelway, “A Reporter with the B-29s, III—The Cigar, the Three Wings, and the Low-Level Attacks,” The New Yorker (June 23, 1945), 36.
32 Morgan interview.
33 LeMay, Mission, 352.
34 McKelway, “B-29s, III,” 36-38.
35 Michael S. Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: Creation of Armageddon (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 406, 278-79. For other sources on the fire raids, see Werrell, Blankets of Fire, Ronald Schaeffer, Wings of Judgment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Conrad Crane, Bombs, Cities, and Civilians (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Haywood Hansell, Strategic Air War Against Japan (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University, 1980); E. Bartlett Kopp, Flames Over Tokyo (New York: Donald I. Fine, 1991); and the seven-volume official history by Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948-58).
36 Gordon Daniels, “The Great Tokyo Air Raid, 9-10 March 1945,” in W. G. Beasley, ed., Modern Japan: Aspects of History, Literature and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), 123. See also Hoito Edoin (Edwin P. Hoyt), The Night Tokyo Burned (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987).
37 Burger, “Tokyo Fire Raid,” 276-77; interview with Knox Burger by DLM.
38 LeMay, Mission, 384.
39 Quoted in Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 21-22.
40 LeMay, Mission, 353.
41 United States Strategic Bombing Survey, “Statistical Appendix to Over-all Report (European War),” Record Group 243, National Archives, Washington, D.C., 1947, 10-31; Werrell, Blankets of Fire, 167-68. Werrell’s book is the most reliable secondary account of the damage caused by the fire raids.
42 LeMay, Mission, 354-55, 368.
43 Quoted in Keith Wheeler, Bombers Over Japan, 98.
44 Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces in World II, vol. 5, 756.
45 Sherry, American Air Power, 280.
46 Quoted in Bix, Hirohito, 491.
47 Bix, Hirohito, 491.
48 Williamson Murray and Allan R. Mil
lett, A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 508. This is the best single-volume military history of the war.
49 Werrell, Blankets of Fire, 226-27, 237-38; Donald L. Miller, The Story of World War II (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 481-82; 544 naval aircraft were lost in bombing and strafing operations against the home islands, almost 20 percent of Navy losses during the entire war.
50 Morgan interview.
51 Ciardi in Terkel, “The Good War,” 199-200.
52 Russell Brines, Until They Eat Stones (New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1944), 9, 11.
53 McKelway, “B-29s, IV,” 42-45.
54 McKelway, “B-29s, III,” 39.
55 Interview with Marty Schaffer by DLM.
56 Ibid.
57 Manchester, Goodbye, Darkness, 338. For the devastating impact of the blockade on Japan’s economy, see United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Report No. 42, The Japanese Wartime Standard of Living and Utilization of Manpower (Washington, D.C.: Manpower, Food and Civilian Supplies Division, 1947); Mark P. Parillo, The Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1993); and Jerome B. Cohen, Japan’s Economy in War and Reconstruction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1949).
58 Around 82 percent of these planes landed for fuel, and in some cases repairs as well. The remaining 18 percent that landed on the island required repairs in order to make it back to their bases on the Marianas. Twentieth Air Force Files, “A Brief Summary of B-29 Strategic Air Operations: 5 June 1944-14 August 1945,” Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala., n.d.
CHAPTER 8: UNCOMMON VALOR
1 William Sanders Clark, unpublished account of personal experiences, 1945. EC. All subsequent quotations by Clark are from this source.
2 Raymond Spruance, interview, July 9, 1965, Raymond A. Spruance Papers, Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C.; see also Thomas B. Buell, The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance (Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press, 1987), 324-25.
3 Between November 1944 and early January 1945 the Japanese launched seven raids on the Marianas from Iwo Jima, destroying eleven Superforts and damaging forty-three others. The attacks stopped in mid-January when LeMay increased the number of bombing missions against Iwo Jima. See Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 5, 581-83.
4 Historian Robert Burrell argues that it was pressure from General Hap Arnold for airstrips for his fighter escorts that first persuaded Nimitz to back the assault on Iwo Jima, which Burrell sees as an unnecessary operation, not worth the high cost that the Marines paid. Nimitz and Spruance then convinced a reluctant King, who described the island as a “sink hole in the hands of whoever held it,” to endorse the plan. See Burrell, “Breaking the Cycle of Iwo Jima Mythology: A Strategic Study of Operation Detachment,” The Journal of Military History, 68: 4 (October 2004): 1143-86.
5 Jones, WW II, 235-36.
6 Typed copy at EC of article on the Battle of Iwo Jima by Brigadier General Wendell Duplantis (originally published in Battle Creek Enquirer and News, February 21, 1965), 1.
7 Sherrod, On to Westward, 153-56; Sherrod, “The First Three Days,” Life (March 5, 1945), 41.
8 Quoted in Brig. Gen. Edwin M. Simmons, “The Island Campagn,” in Jacob Neufeld,William T. Youngblood and Mary Lee Jefferson, eds., Pearl to V-J Day: World War II in the Pacific (Washington, D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, 2000), 34.
9 Sherrod, On to Westward, 154, 159.
10 John Lardner, “A Reporter at Large: D Day, Iwo Jima,” The New Yorker (March 17, 1945), 48.
11 Interview with Andy Anderson, Lou Reda Productions.
12 Lardner, “D Day,” 50.
13 Quoted in Keith Wheeler, The Road to Tokyo (New York: Time-Life Books, 1979), 60.
14 Quoted in Lynn Kessler, ed., with Edmond B. Bart, Never in Doubt: Remembering Iwo Jima (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1999), 168-69.
15 Joe Rosenthal with W. C. Heinz, “The Picture That Will Live Forever,” Collier’s (February 18, 1955), 62; interview with Frank Crossland Caldwell, Lou Reda Productions.
16 Lardner, “D Day,” 50-61.
17 Sherrod, On to Westward, 178; Sherrod, “The First Three Days,” 44.
18 Quoted in Kessler, Never in Doubt, 12.
19 Quoted in ibid., 206-8.
20 Sherrod, “The First Three Days,” 44.
21 Quoted in Kessler, Never in Doubt, 55.
22 Interview with General Fred E. Hayner, Lou Reda Productions.
23 Sherrod, “The First Three Days,” 44.
24 Sherrod, On to Westward, 190.
25 Quoted in Keith Wheeler, Road to Tokyo, 41.
26 Quoted in Richard Wheeler, Iwo (New York: Lippincott & Crowell, 1980), 10.
27 Ibid., 33.
28 Quoted in Duplantis, 3.
29 Bill Reed, “Battle for Iwo,” in “Yank,” the GI Story of the War, 219-21.
30 Interview with Charles W. Lindberg, Lou Reda Productions; all subsequent quotations by Lindberg are from this source.
31 Quoted in Richard Wheeler, Iwo, 159.
32 Quoted in ibid., 161.
33 Rosenthal, “The Picture That Will Live Forever,” 62-63; Hal Buell, Moments: The Pulitzer Prize-Winning Photographs (New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 1999), 22; Richard Wheeler, Iwo, 157-64; Hatch interview with DLM.
34 Quoted in James Bradley with Ron Powers, Flags of Our Fathers (New York: Bantam, 2000), 220. For another fine account of the battle, see Bill D. Ross, Iwo Jima—Legacy of Valor (New York: Vintage, 1986); for the battle from the perspective of a medical officer, see James S. Vedder, Combat Surgeon: Up Front with the 27th Marines (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1984).
35 Jeremy Paxman and Robert Harris, A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret Story of Gas and Germ Warfare (New York: Hill & Wang, 1983), 138; John Ellis van Courtland Moon, “Chemical Warfare: A Forgotten Lesson,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 45, no. 6 (July-August 1989), 40-43; Brooks E. Kleber and Dale Birdsell, The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966), 648-52.
36 Nichols, Ernie’s War, 568, 374-77.
37 Hal Buell, Moments, 23: interview with Hal Buell, Lou Reda Productions.
38 Sherrod, On to Westward, 202.
39 C. P. Zurlinden, Jr., and others, “Iwo: The Red-Hot Rock,” Collier’s (April 4, 1945), 16-17.
40 Quoted in Broderick H. Johnson, ed., Navajos and World War II (Tsaile, Navajo Nation Ariz.: Navajo Community Press, 1977), 54-56.
41 John P. Langellier, American Indians in the U.S. Armed Forces 1866-1945 (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 2000), 8.
42 Quoted in Kessler, Never in Doubt, 166.
43 Quoted in Bruce Watson, “Jaysho, Moasi,” Smithsonian Magazine 24, no. 5 (August 1993), 36; see also Ron McCoy, “Navajo Code-Talkers of World War II,” American West 18 (1981), 67-73; and Alison R. Bernstein, American Indians and World War II (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
44 Quoted in Johnson, Navajos and World War II, 59-61.
45 Interview with Norma Crotty, Lou Reda Productions.
46 Richard Wheeler, Iwo, 201; George Green testimony, EC.
47 Keith Wheeler, Road to Tokyo, 55.
48 Quoted in Derrick Wright, The Battle for Iwo Jima (Somerset, U.K.: Sutton Publishing, 1999), 154.
49 Quoted in Richard Wheeler, Iwo, 223.
50 Hayner interview.
51 Richard Wheeler, Iwo, 231.
52 Quoted in ibid., 234.
53 See, for example, Burrell, “Breaking the Cycle,” 1186.
54 Quoted in Kessler, Never in Doubt, 112-13.
55 Cooke, quoted in Smith, Marine Corps, 827.
CHAPTER 9: OKINAWA
1 Sledge, Old Breed, 171-73, 178.
2 For figures on the Normandy landings, see D’Este, Eisenhower, 534; Stephen E. Ambrose, D-Day, June 6, 1944: The Climactic
Battle of World War II (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 576; Andrew Gordon, “The Greatest Military Armada Ever Launched,” and Williamson Murray, “A Visitor to Hell,” both in Jane Penrose, ed., The D-Day Companion: Leading Historians Explore History’s Greatest Amphibious Assault (Oxford, U.K.: Osprey Publishing, 2004), 141-43, 161; Murray and Milieu, War to Be Won, 420; and Adrian Lewis, Omaha Beach: A Flawed Victory (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), passim.
Statistics on the number of Marines taking part in the Okinawa operation are at the Marine Corps Historical Center, Washington, D.C. Navy records are at the Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C. Army records are at the U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
When Douglas MacArthur landed at Luzon on January 9, 1945, he had an assault force of approximately 175,000 troops, only slightly fewer than sailed into the waters around Okinawa.
3 Sledge, Old Breed, 179.
4 Interview with Mort Zimmerman by DLM; Morison, Two-Ocean War, 529; for the Franklin, see Roy W. Bruce, “Done Blowed the Ship to Hell,” Naval History (March-April 1995), 1-47.
5 Sherrod, On to Westward, 265, 293-94
6 Sledge, Old Breed, 179; Manchester, Goodbye, Darkness, 399-400.
7 Sledge, Old Breed, 179; “Okinawa,” Life (May 28, 1945), 90.
8 John Lardner, “A Reporter on Okinawa: II—The Tomb Life,” The New Yorker (May 26, 1945).
9 Army Major General John R. Hodge commanded the XXIV Corps, which had three infantry Divisions—the 7th, 77th, and 96th, with the 27th in floating reserve and the 81st in area reserve. Marine Major General Roy S. Geiger commanded the III Amphibious Corps, comprised of the 1st and 6th Marine Divisions, with the 2nd Marine Division in floating reserve.
10 Isely and Crowl, Amphibious War, 15.
11 Quoted in Sherrod, On to Westward, 268-69.
12 Quoted in George Feifer, Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992), 136. This book and three others are excellent histories of the battle: Roy E. Appleman, James M. Burns, Russell A. Guegeler, and John Stevens, Okinawa: The Last Battle (Washington, D.C.: Historical Division, Department of the Army, 1948); William M. Belote and James H. Belote, Typhoon of Steel: The Battle for Okinawa (New York: Harper & Row, 1970); and Benis M. Frank and Henry I. Shaw, Jr., Victory and Occupation (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Marine Corps, 1968). Colonel Hiromichi Yahara and Frank Gibney gave an eyewitness account of the battle from the Japanese perspective in The Battle for Okinawa (New York: John Wiley, 1995).
D-DAYS IN THE PACIFIC Page 46
