The American thought that this was probably a trick often played on unsuspecting tourists, and was sure that the items would be fake. He told his friend of the encounter, and he was warned about the perils of buying plastic artifacts and carrying large amounts of money. The following day, he met the local man again to look at the items. The American described them as: ‘a couple of yellow (gold) coloured bird statues, some old papyrus with hardly legible hieroglyphics written on them, and lots of jewellery, three amulets and various rings of yellow metal, some of which had stones inset in them’. They agreed a price for one of the amulets, which bore the image of a scarab beetle, and two rings, the American selecting these because he thought them less ‘tacky’ than the rest of the goods offered. He paid over 100 US dollars, which he thought good value for both parties. The Egyptian bade him farewell and warned him to keep the scarab amulet securely locked inside a case, and never to carry it on his person outside Egypt, as it possessed the soul of death itself. Laughing, the man put each of the items he had purchased in his pocket and returned to the dig site within the temple. There he showed his friend what he had bought. His friend gave the objects a cursory glance, commenting that they looked better than the usual touristy objects and that they had a look of authenticity about them.
Back at his hotel that evening, the American placed his purchases on a table and prepared himself for dinner. He gave no further thought to items until the early hours of the morning, when he was awakened from a deep sleep by the chattering sound of insects. Thinking it was outside his room window, he got up and checked that it was closed and returned to his bed. Moments later he heard the chattering sound once more; this time it sounded close to the pillow. He searched the bed and then the room, but could find nothing that could warrant such a noise. He got no further sleep. At breakfast, his friend commented on how tired he looked, and noticed a trickle of blood running from his friend’s nose. In the days that followed the American became so weak he was hardly able to get out of bed. With just two days of the trip remaining, it was decided that he should stay in his room and rest. If the sickness persisted when he got home he could seek medical help there.
That night the exhausted man was awakened by something in his room. When he opened his eyes he saw a tall, angry-looking animalheaded figure standing by his bed. Slowly the creature bent over him; it felt ice cold when it touched his skin. The prostrate man screamed in terror and the figure disappeared. The following morning the American caught sight of himself in a mirror and was shocked. His eyes had sunk back into their sockets and his face was skeletal; his skin was turning yellow. A doctor was called and told him he had a fever. He was prescribed medication and given dietary advice. The doctor warned that if he did not improve then he might be unable to fly back to America. That night his friend stayed by his side and saw an noticeable improvement, so he was able to return home.
Back in America, the man’s health gradually stabilised, but his nightmares got worse. In his dreams he saw the god Anubis crouched over him, as another man, whom he described as a high priest, removed his innards and placed them in jars. The man often became hysterical, claiming to see evil spirits and loathsome creatures everywhere: in his home, in supermarkets and even at a cemetery. Doctors could do nothing and it was a local priest who suggested an exorcism to cleanse the soul. This was done, and those that conducted the ceremony admitted to hearing foreign voices, speaking in a vile tongue, emanating from the body of the man. A great shadow suddenly appeared on the walls of the room: an animal-headed man holding something in its hand. The infected man suddenly sat up and yelled out ‘the great god of the dead walks among us, he commands you to leave him be or to suffer pain for all eternity.’ He then fell back on to the bed in a coma-like state. The atmosphere within the room then lightened and it was believed that the spirit had been exorcised.
The man slowly recovered and, believing that his illness had started after he bought the amulet and rings, he decided to get rid of them and gave them to a friend. Within days, the friend became very ill and had to be placed in an asylum due to the hallucinations he suffered. He claimed to see the ancient dead walking in file behind the god Anubis. The man’s wife took ill and almost died after being bitten by an insect and getting an infection, and the family car was stolen and crashed. Windows in their home began to crack and the smell of death seemed to linger in the upstairs rooms. Eventually, the original purchaser of the amulet and rings decided to get rid of the Egyptian items once and for all. He wrapped them in linen, saturated this with holy water and buried them deep in a specially prepared hole in an area of woodland. Once this was done, the health of the man in the asylum improved and he was able to return home. Two years later, he told a relative (who related the story to me). The relative persuaded him to take him to where the items had been buried because he felt they should be returned to Egypt through the local museum. When they visited the burial site, there was nothing to be found but a hole. The linen and the items were gone.
To this day the family monitors the local news stations, expecting to hear of further sinister activity created by the missing items of jewellery. The whereabouts of the items is unknown and despite efforts to locate them, through newspaper adverts and word of mouth, no trace of them has been found. The family is convinced that the items were well hidden that it would be virtually impossible for someone to have stumbled upon them. They believe that some kind of power or magic connected to the ancient Egyptian gods has recovered them.
There are many other recorded instances of strange happenings relating to Egyptian artifacts, including one that was reported in 2013. A ten-inch statue of Neb-Sanu, dating back almost 4,000 years, which is on display in a glass case at Manchester Museum, seemingly turned of its own accord. Time-lapse video footage appears to show the statue turning round. Immediately talk of an ancient curse began to circulate in the media. Tales of how dead spirits can use statues or effigies as alternative ‘vessels’ became popular, and the museum’s own Egyptologist even suggested a curse was the cause of the phenomenon. Several more ‘reasoned’ explanations were offered, and the authorities quite rightly opted to accept that the movement was caused by vibration from a nearby road, or the movement of visitors within the museum. All of this proves that we are still fascinated by tales of curses, and in particular those that can come from the Egyptian pharaohs’ tombs.
One man who thought he had solved the mystery of the curse was physician and biologist at Cairo University Dr Ezzeddin Taha, who examined archaeologists and employees of museums housing Egyptian artifacts. His findings showed that many staff had been exposed to a fungus that could cause fever-induced inflammation of the respiratory system. He observed how archaeologists suffered from what was known as the ‘Coptic Itch’. This was linked to rashes of the skin and laboured breathing. The symptoms had been noted in people who had worked intensively with Egyptian papyri. Taha was able to prove the existence of a series of dangerous disease agents, among them aspergillus niger. His research, however, could not show whether the fungus was able to survive in mummies, or in grave chambers for periods of 1,000 years or more. Believing his findings to be a worthy news story, on 3 November 1962 Dr Taha held a press conference, at which he claimed to have discovered the cause of the curse of the pharaohs, or at least one cause. He said:
This discovery, has once and for all destroyed the superstition that explorers who worked in ancient tombs died as a result of some kind of curse. They were victims of morbific agents encountered at work. Some people may still believe that the curse of the pharaohs can be attributed to some supernatural powers, but that belongs to the realm of fairy tales.
Taha admitted, however, that infections might not be the only cause of the deaths of so many scientists.
Soon after this press conference, Dr Taha and two of his co-workers were driving on the desert road between Suez and Cairo. It was quiet and empty. About 70 kilometres from Cairo, on a straight road, Taha’s car suddenly swerved to the lef
t, directly into the path of an oncoming vehicle. Taha and his companions died instantly from the impact. The occupants of the other vehicle were badly injured and able to give evidence about what had happened. According to the autopsy, Dr Taha had suffered ‘a circulatory collapse’. And so the mysterious events continue.
As a result of Taha’s work, many scholars, scientists and academics have tried to identify the reasons why so many deaths are associated with the opening of tombs or work on mummies and artifacts. It does seem that many archaeologists or people associated with that type of work have died prematurely. It seems likely that ancient Egyptian priests and magicians used advanced technical knowledge to retain a stranglehold of power over the people – instilling in them a fear of curses. Assessing just how advanced the Egyptians were as a scientific civilisation is difficult, since it appears that in ancient Egypt such knowledge was shrouded in secrecy, with only a select few practitioners understanding it and passing their craft on to following generations. They certainly had sophisticated medical knowledge, since there is evidence of bones and joints being set, broken bones being placed in splints and that the concept of sterilisation existed. Tubes, made from reeds wrapped in linen, were used for artificial nourishment, and forms of dental bridges fastened with gold wire were in use. To help the healing process, medicinal prescriptions were provided, mainly comprising juices, salves, powders and suppositories. Instructions for the taking of pills and other drugs produced by Egyptian doctors have survived and since been translated; incredibly, these bear a real similarity to those of modern pharmacology. The workers at the great pyramids were fed a diet of radishes, onions and leeks. The reasoning behind this was practical: with such large numbers of men working together there was a real hygiene problem. Any kind of epidemic would spread quickly and exterminate many in a short time. The vegetables would help prevent serious infections from breaking out. It has since been proved through modern research that the use of such a diet is effective against infectious agents such as Streptococci, Staphylococci and Pneumococci.
It is evident that the ancient Egyptians had a good understanding of the physiological effects of bacterial infection. As we know today, Staphylococci can produce pus that is able to infect the skin, kidneys and bone marrow, while Streptococci can cause diphtheria, blood poisoning and scarlet fever. So is it feasible that scientific secrets form part of the explanation for the curse of the pharaohs? The Egyptians knew of a type of nerve poison. Ergot is a grain fungus. One doctor believed that a poison was placed in the tombs by the high priests. After the final work on the tomb was completed and the workmen had left, the priests would sprinkle poison over everything that was in the tomb. Any intruder would inhale the poison and die. The use or knowledge of poison is as old as civilisation itself. Some 4,000 years ago, the very first pharaoh, Menes, grew poisonous plants and had their effects documented. It should also be noted that the Romans, who knew of Egyptian achievements in toxicology, acquired most of their poisons from Egypt. Caligula, Claudius, Nero and Caracalla were said to possess large collections of poisons. There are also natural poisons to be considered, such as those from snake and insect venom. These could be drawn from the creature and stored. The pharaohs’ tombs, which ultraviolet rays could not penetrate, would be ideal environments for storing poisons and maintaining their effectiveness. An archaeologist need not have oral contact with any such poison. To be effective, some of the poisons need only brush or penetrate the skin. In pharaohs’ tombs, powerful poisons such as aconite, arsenic, and conium may have been used to paint walls and artifacts. Their potency was, and is, long-lasting. It has been suggested that poisonous gases and vapours, in precipitated form, were most likely present in the tombs. In the airtight chambers these vapours could precipitate and remain there until released by the tomb being opened.
One closely guarded poison of ancient Egypt was quicksilver (mercury). As quicksilver easily evaporates at very low temperatures, it is a dangerous poison. The danger to a victim is further enhanced because its vapors are odourless, but damage the nervous system. Then we have prussic acid, a colourless liquid, which causes death from choking. The Egyptians isolated this deadly poison from peach pits. Some scholars believe that mummy bandages were initially soaked in a mix of prussic acid and volatile oils. This would also account for the widespread decomposition of royal mummies.
Science has long been searching for a rational explanation for the curse, with many scientists pursuing the possibility of infection. One was South African geologist Dr John Wiles. In October 1956, Wiles clambered into the subterranean grottoes of the Rhodesian mountains. He had no idea that in doing so he might be exposing himself to mortal danger. His role was to examine the application of bat excrement, which is similar to guano, for use as a fertiliser. Wiles descended to about 450 feet and was startled by a sudden noise. The pitch-black roof of the grotto suddenly came to life, as thousands of bats that hung there moved and squeezed closer together. Wiles ascended as quickly as he could. Within a few days he was complaining of indigestion, aching muscles, and running a high fever. His doctor diagnosed him as suffering from pneumonia and pleurisy. He was prescribed drugs, but the treatment didn’t work and his condition grew worse. Wiles was then admitted to Geoffrey Hospital in Port Elizabeth. One of the directors at the hospital, Dr Dean, recalled that a disease had recently been discovered that was prevalent among explorers who had been visiting Inca caves in Peru. Dean took a blood sample from Wiles, whose condition was fast failing, and forwarded it to the United States for examination and assessment. Within hours, confirmation was received that the geologist was suffering from histoplasmosis, a disease caused by an infectious fungus which grows in bat excrement and other rotting matter. Antibiotics were administered and Wiles recovered. Dr Dean then wondered if the same disease might be a cause of the puzzling deaths connected with the pharaohs’ tombs. The rock-based tombs would be an ideal breeding ground for such bacteria.
Combustion is often observed on royal mummies, as a direct result of bacteriological processes. The fats, oils, and resins that are smothered on the mummy begin to decompose and they produce heat, which we now know leads to the mysterious charring of the corpse. For countless decades, archaeologists pondered why mummies were so blackened in appearance. The cause is bacteria. Chemists and bacteriologists believe that bacteria can survive, under the right conditions, for centuries; so it is not inconceivable that the ancient Egyptians used bacterial cultures that would produce poisonous gases to protect the royal tomb.
In 1986, French doctor of medicine Caroline Stenger-Phillip believed she had found an explanation for the mysterious deaths that were attached to tombs and the mummy. Stenger-Phillip believed that food offerings left in tombs before they were sealed would create ideal mould-growing conditions. Since much of the food left consisted of fruit and vegetables, it was highly likely that these objects grew mould, which in turn and over time would form organic dust particles. The dust particles could have had a high allergenic potency. Dr Stenger-Phillip further believed that many of the archaeologists who had forced entry into sealed tombs for the first time suffered an allergic reaction after breathing and inhaling these dust particles, which ultimately led to their deaths. Recent studies have revealed that many ancient mummies do harbour mould, including at least two potentially dangerous species: Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus. These moulds can cause allergic reactions ranging from nasal congestion to bleeding in the lungs. The toxins themselves can be extremely harmful to people with weakened immune systems. Another doctor, Italian physician Nicola di Paolo, carried out her own research and arrived at a similar conclusion. Di Paolo identified another possible fungus, Aspergillus ochraceus, at Egyptian archaeological sites. Aspergillus ochraceus has been shown to produce some mycotoxins, including Penicillic acid, Ochratoxin A, Xanthomeginin, Viomellein and Vioxanthin.
In 1999, a German microbiologist, Gottard Kramer, from the Univerity of Leipzig, revealed that he believed the cause of the pharaohs�
�� curse was mould spores. Kramer had analyzed 40 mummies and identified a number of potentially dangerous spores. Mould spores are resilient and tough and can survive for thousands of years, especially in a dark, dry tomb. Although most spores are harmless, a few can be toxic. Kramer also noted that mould spores were found in dirt samples collected from tombs. He believes that when the tombs were initially opened and fresh air blew inside, these mould spores would be blown up into the air and circulate. When spores enter the human body, through the nose, mouth or mucous membranes, they can trigger severe and occasionally fatal illnesses of the lungs, organs and intestines, leading to organ failure or death, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems (including many of the original visitors who are reported to have visited the tomb of King Tutankhamun on or shortly after its opening). Today, for this very reason, scientists and archaeologists wear protective masks and gloves when unwrapping or examining a mummy. Back in the 1920s no protection was worn.
To supplement the work of Dr Kramer, another German practitioner, Dr Hans Merk, who was a dermatologist at the University of Aachen, Germany, performed similar research and he fully agrees with Dr Kramer’s conclusions. Merk relates how he analysed dust and rock samples from different tombs and found three main types of mould: Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus terreus and Cephalosporium (Acremonium). Each of these species is toxic, particularly to the elderly and those who are immune deficient.
Mould spores are not only found in ancient Egyptian tombs. In fact, the most notorious case of the ‘mummy’s curse’ was in Poland, in 1973, with the opening of the tomb of King Casimir IV. A team of twelve research scientists were granted permission to break open the tomb of Casimir IV, king of Poland from 1447–92, so that they could examine his remains, with restoration being the ultimate objective. On Friday 13 April 1973, the tomb was opened. All twelve researchers were present. Inside, they found a wooden coffin that had badly deteriorated. It was heavily rotted but still in place within the tomb. Within just a few days of the opening, four of the twelve scientists had died. Shortly thereafter a further six died, and only two survivors remained. One of these was research microbiologist Dr B. Smyk. He had serious problems with his equilibrium in the five years that followed, but he was able to perform some detailed microbiological examinations of the tomb to see if there were any correlations between his illness, the deaths and anything sinister found within the tomb. Dr Smyk found various types of fungi on the artifacts that had been removed from the tomb by the research team. He identified three specific species: Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium rubrum and Penicillium rugulosum. These fungi can produce mycotoxins, and are believed to have caused the deaths of the other ten researchers. Since these findings were published, it has been further speculated that similar fungi and spores may have been responsible for the death of Lord Carnarvon, who died a few months after exploring King Tutankhamun’s tomb in 1923. When the mummy of Ramesses II (king of Egypt from 1304–1237 BC) was removed and transported to the Musee de l’Homme in Paris in 1976, over 370 fungal colonies belonging to eighty-nine different fungal species (including Aspergillus) were found growing in and on the mummy.
The Curse of the Pharaohs' Tombs Page 15
