Table 5.1. Summary of the Advantages and Disadvantages Associated with the Modes and Types of Tourism Transport.
Mode
Tourist Considerations
Destination Considerations
Surface
Walk
Free
Flexibility
Required in traffic-free zones
Used only for short distances
Dependent on physical condition
Reduces traffic congestion and pollution
Increases access to businesses
Requires investment in some infrastructure (e.g., paths, sidewalks, signs)
Rail
Well suited for short-to medium-haul travel
Ease of navigation versus driving
May facilitate tourism experiences (e.g., historic or scenic trains)
Constrained by schedules and routes
Costs vary by destination
Schedules and routes can be modified based on demand
May serve as an attraction
May require investment in infrastructure, new technology, and/or maintenance
Personal car
Flexibility
Privacy
Well suited for short- to medium-haul travel
Associated with varied costs (e.g., fuel, tolls, parking)
May be difficult to navigate unfamiliar roads
Increases accessibility of destinations not served by mass transit
May require investment in roads and parking facilities
Brings fewer visitors per vehicle
May generate congestion and pollution
Scheduled bus
Low cost
Ease of navigation versus driving
May be used for short- or medium-haul travel
Constrained by schedules and routes
Lack of privacy, personal space, and security
Requires little additional investment
Schedules and routes can be modified based on demand
May be subject to significant perceptual constraints (e.g., location of stations, prevalence of crime)
Water
Ferry
Provides access to small destinations
Offers the ability to take personal cars
Slow
Not used for long-haul travel
Increases access to small destinations
Requires docking and terminal facilities
Cruise
Allows travel to multiple destinations
Provides a vacation experience
Requires travel to port
Slow
Not well suited for long-haul travel
Increases access to island/coastal destinations
Has the potential to bring large quantities of tourists
Requires a deepwater harbor or ferry service, docking and terminal facilities
Air
Scheduled
Provides access to more destinations
Well suited for long-haul travel
May have high costs
May contribute to increased stress levels
May have health risks (e.g., jet lag, deep-vein thrombosis)
Increases access to remote or hard-to-reach destinations
Has the potential to bring large quantities of tourists
Requires space for/ investment in runway and terminal facilities
Must be regulated
Generates pollution (e.g., air, noise)
Sightseeing
Offers a unique experience
May have high costs
Facilitates access to large-scale attractions
May be disruptive
In comparison with the other primary categories of mode, surface transport is more dependent on geography because the development of a network is restricted by land area, infrastructure, and possibly even national boundaries. Yet, surface transport continues to be the most widely used mode of tourism transport to reach the destination and to move around the destination. Self-powered surface transport, such as walking or bicycling, is used to get around a destination or as a form of transportation-as-experience (e.g., bicycle tours). Additionally, surface transport can be broken down into rail and road transport.
Today, the use of rail transport in tourism is highly uneven. Countries like the United States that have placed an emphasis on expansion of road networks have seen some of the greatest declines in passenger rail transport. Few developing countries have invested in creating rail networks. However, throughout Europe and parts of East Asia, extensively developed rail networks continue to be used on a wide scale. Some countries have even made new investments in this infrastructure (e.g., high-speed trains, figure 5.1), to improve rail transport and provide a competitive means of getting to or from a destination.
Figure 5.1. France’s Train à Grande Vitesse (TGV) high-speed service network is centered in Paris and helps tourists easily reach the leading destination regions across the country. (Source: Kim Sinkhorn)
Personal vehicles (figure 5.2) are now the dominant mode of tourism transport, accounting for approximately 77 percent of all trips.10 Still, road transport has not been as significant in developing regions of the world where fewer people have access to private cars. Recreational vehicles (RVs) are a subcategory of personal vehicles that offer a unique form of tourism contingent upon transport. Scheduled bus services account for a small amount of tourism transport to and from destinations, while local bus services and taxis may be used to reach a major transport node or for travel within a destination. Charter bus services are used in package tours and excursions from a resort area, and specialized tourism transport, such as sightseeing and hop-on hop-off buses that stop at major attractions, provide an additional option at major destinations.
Figure 5.2. Personal cars provide tourists with the greatest flexibility to travel and experience the destination the way they choose. (Source: Velvet Nelson)
Developments in other modes, particularly air, have changed the role of water transport in tourism. Ferries may be used as a means of reaching a destination, particularly those areas that are not large enough to support an airport. For example, ferries and hydrofoils are used to transport tourists to some of the islands off the coast of southern Europe, such as the Greek island of Hydra. Yet, in other cases, ferries have been replaced with “island hopper” flights, which is a common occurrence in places such as the Hawaiian Islands.
Nonetheless, water transport continues to play an important role in tourism with the cruise ship industry, where transportation constitutes the tourism experience rather than serving as a means to an end. The Caribbean continues to be the most popular cruising region, followed by the Mediterranean; however, new routes are being developed all over the world. Cruises were once marketed to older age groups, but many lines have expanded their target markets by offering various price options, attractions for younger markets, and theme cruises for special interest groups (figure 5.3). In addition, water transport can provide the means of participating in activities at the destination, such as sunset cruises, whale watching, and snorkeling or scuba-diving expeditions.
Figure 5.3. Although water transport has become less significant as a means of getting to and from a tourism destination, the cruise industry has become one of the tourism industry’s biggest sectors. Today, cruise lines offer a diverse set of experiences for different target markets. For example, the Disney Cruise Line appeals to families. (Source: Amber Fisher)
Air transport is the most recently developed mode and has primarily been used in tourism as a means of reaching the destination (figure 5.4). In fact, this mode has been vital in increasing the accessibility of remote and poorly connected destinations. Due to high costs, air travel has been unavailable for much of the world’s population. However, recent developments such as the introduction of low-cost carriers have started to make changes in the way airlines do business. In fact, cheap regional flights have begun to compete with both rail and road transport. Air transport can
also be an integral part of a tourism experience, such as a panoramic helicopter flight over large scenic attractions like the Grand Canyon or Iguazu Falls on the border between Argentina and Brazil.
Figure 5.4. Air transport provides the means of reaching destinations that are isolated by poor surface transportation networks—in this case, Dangriga, Belize. (Source: Tom Nelson)
These modes serve different roles in tourism, and trips frequently require the use of multiple modes. For example, personal cars, taxis and shuttle services, or inner-city train systems may be used to get to and from the terminal node (i.e., a train station, airport, or seaport). Likewise, tourists may rent a car, take taxis and tour buses, or use public transportation systems to reach and get around their destination. As such, it is important that a destination develop a comprehensive transportation system in which the networks of the different modes used in tourism are integrated. This will allow tourists to change from one mode to another as seamlessly as possible.
As tourists, we typically evaluate our options instinctively, with little reflection; therefore, these issues often seem self-evident. However, there are many factors that determine the appropriate mode(s) of transportation for a trip. There are both practical considerations involved (i.e., what modes are available for a trip) and a variet
Box 5.1. Case Study: The Swiss Travel System
Switzerland is widely recognized for having not only one of the most extensive public transport systems in the world but also one of the most efficient. While this system serves local and domestic needs, it also provides an incredible foundation for tourism. Few countries have the same potential to offer tourists such easy access to their destinations through both comprehensive connections between places and regular timetables. Although air transport provides access to the country for regional and global tourists, the public transport system within the country spans both water and surface transport. Water transport consists of boat routes on rivers and lakes, while surface transport includes a road network used by cars, intercity buses, and metro buses, as well as the internationally renowned rail network that provides the foundation for the entire system.
In an effort to both increase use of this network and promote international tourism, the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) created the Swiss Travel System. This system provides a range of ticket options for foreign travelers and increases the ease of travel within the country by providing access to each of the train, bus, and boat routes within a network that spans some 12,500 miles. For example, the Swiss Pass (the most comprehensive option) allows unlimited travel on any of the modes for a specified number of days and discounted fares on specialized transport (e.g., cog trains or aerial cable cars) in destination areas. In addition, the pass offers free entry to approximately four hundred museums in the country and discounts at some hotels. Discounted fares are also provided to youth (defined as under the age of twenty-six) and free fares for children (defined as under the age of sixteen) when accompanied by a parent.
While most routes in Switzerland could arguably be described as scenic, there are specifically designated scenic rail and water routes. Additionally, restored “nostalgia” trains have been developed for the use of tourists. Some railways, such as the Jungfraujoch, which takes visitors to the “Top of Europe,” Europe’s highest railway station, were constructed especially for the purpose of tourism. The Swiss Travel System network provides an excellent example of the interrelationship between tourism and transport. In addition to simply facilitating travel from one place to another, this network can also be considered a distinct part of the tourism experience.
Discussion topic: What role do you think intra-destination transport (such as the Swiss Travel System) plays in tourism decisions?
Tourism on the web: Swiss National Tourism Office, “Switzerland Tourism,” at http://www.myswitzerland.com
Map 5.1. Switzerland. This popular European tourism destination is well connected by a comprehensive and efficient transportation network. The major surface transport links (road and railroad) shown here are further connected by numerous minor ones. (Source: XNR Productions)
Source
Swiss Travel System. “Switzerland by Train, Bus and Boat.” Accessed October 13, 2011. http://www.swisstravelsystem.com/en/.
y of perceptual considerations (i.e., personal preferences and constraints).11
Distance is one of the most important practical considerations that may automatically eliminate one or more modes. Greater distances require longer travel times and/or higher transportation costs. Monetary cost is one of the most important perceptual considerations. Transportation accounts for some of the largest expenditures in tourism. For many trips, the experience stage begins when the tourists reach the destination; thus, they are interested in reaching their destination as quickly and efficiently as possible. However, for tourists with a limited budget for a trip, it may come down to a choice: spend more money on transportation or on the experience at the destination. For example, a direct flight may be the option that requires the shortest amount of travel time, and, by extension, often the least amount of hassles and potential problems in the form of lines, security screenings, delays, lost luggage, and so on. This allows the maximum amount of time spent at the destination. Yet, a flight with multiple connections or even other modes of transport, such as a personal car, may be lower-cost options that are longer or less convenient but could allow the tourists to spend an additional day at the destination, participate in a particular tourism activity, or make other expenditures. Likewise, if transportation cost is a significant factor, tourists may need to consider a second- or third-choice destination as an alternative.
Personal goals and preferences also play a role in transportation decisions. As we saw above, we cannot assume that tourists will take the most efficient route from the point of origin to the destination based on shortest distance or travel time. Rather than being primarily concerned with getting from point A to point B in the fastest manner possible, tourists might be interested in seeing things along the way, where the movement stage is as important as the experience stage in the tourism process. Consequently, they might choose to drive a personal car to get a better view of the landscape through which they are passing, as well as to have the freedom to make stops or take intentional detours along the way. Additionally, tourists who are afraid to fly will take an alternative mode of transportation to get to their destination, regardless of whether air transport is the quickest, easiest, or cheapest mode.
This choice of mode affects the level of interaction tourists will have with both people and places. The development of new modes of transportation changed the ways in which people experienced places. The faster the mode, the less of the passing landscape is seen. For air transportation in particular, observing the landscape is generally not considered a part of travel; therefore, tourists only have the opportunity to experience the place of the destination as opposed to the places of travel as well. The choice of mode also has the potential to create opportunities for interaction with other people or limit it. Personal cars tend to isolate tourists, both from locals and from other tourists. Specialized tourism transport, such as charter and sightseeing buses, fosters interaction with other tourists, while walking and taking public transportation often allows tourists the greatest opportunities to interact with local people.
Patterns of Movement in Tourism
Transport geography also considers spatial patterns of movement. Movement is a fundamental part of the tourism process. Depending on the type of tourism itinerary, or the planned route or journey for a trip (figure 5.5), movement may comprise two distinct stages in the tourism process: travel to and travel from the destination. While perhaps just a means to an end, travel to the destination may hold a certain measure of excitement and anticipation. This is less likely the case for travel home. After the experience at the destination, tourists may be tired and ready to just get home. The length of the trip, and any potential hassles that arise during the cou
rse of travel, can shape the post-trip stage, in which people remember their trip (see box 5.2). Yet, movement may also be an integral part of the trip and encompass the entire experience stage.
Tourism scholars have identified many different types of tourism itineraries. The most basic type is point-to-point. In this itinerary, people travel from their home to a destination where they stay for the duration of their vacation and then return home. The selected mode for such a trip will depend on the transportation infrastructure and relative locations of the tourist’s origin and destination. Typically, movement will be a means to an end with this type of itinerary. For example, tourists traveling from New York City to an all-inclusive resort in the Dominican Republic will follow a point-to-point itinerary using air transport to reach the destination, at which point the experience stage will begin. However, the movement stage can nonetheless be incorporated into the experience stage. For tourists using road transport to drive from New York City to the Finger Lakes region in Upstate New York, the scenery witnessed en route may be considered part of the experience, in addition to the time spent at the destination.
An Introduction to the Geography of Tourism Page 15
