by Herb Frazier
31. Ibid.
32. Barry Paddock and Larry McShane, “Dylann Roof’s Affection One Month Before Charleston Shooting Signaled Something Was Wrong to Stepmother: ‘Like He Was Telling Me Goodbye,’ ” New York Daily News, June 22, 2015, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/dylann-roof-stepmother-hug-signaled-wrong-article-1.2265193.
33. Robles and Stewart, “Dylann Roof’s Past Reveals Trouble at Home and School.”
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid.
38. Rob Crilly and Raf Sanchez, “Dylann Roof: The Charleston Shooter’s Racist Manifesto,” Telegraph (UK), June 20, 2015, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/11688675/Dylann-Roof-The-Charleston-killers-racist-manifesto.html; and Francis Robles, “Dylann Roof Photos and a Manifesto Are Posted on Website,” New York Times, June 20 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/21/us/dylann-storm-roof-photos-website-charleston-church-shooting.html.
39. Robles and Stewart, “Dylann Roof’s Past Reveals Trouble at Home and School.”
40. Ralph Ellis, Greg Botelho, and Ed Payne, “Charleston Church Shooter Hears Victim’s Kin Say, ‘I Forgive You,’ ” CNN, June 19, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/19/us/charleston-church-shooting-main.
41. Frances Robles, Jason Horowitz, and Shaila Dewan, “Dylann Roof, Suspect in Charleston Shooting, Flew the Flags of White Power,” New York Times, June 18, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/19/us/on-facebook-dylann-roof-charleston-suspect-wears-symbols-of-white-supremacy.html.
42. Jeremy Borden, Sari Horwitz, and Jerry Markon, “For Accused Killer Dylann Roof, a Life That Had Quietly Drifted off Track,” Washington Post, June 18, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/accused-killer-in-sc-slayings-described-as-a-quiet-loner/2015/06/18/a4127390-15d0-11e5-89f3-61410da94eb1_story.html.
43. Ryan Parker, “Dylann Roof’s Uncle: ‘He’ll Get No Sympathy from Us,’ ” Los Angeles Times, June 18, 2015, http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-nn-dylann-roof-uncle-20150618-story.html.
Chapter Three: The Flag Comes Down
1. David Wren and Doug Pardue, “Manifesto Attributed to Dylann Roof Drew Inspiration from Hate Group with Local Tie,” Post and Courier, June 20, 2015, http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20150620/PC16/150629910.
2. Cynthia Roldan and Schuyler Kropf, “Gov. Nikki Haley Joins Call to Remove Confederate Flag,” Post and Courier, June 22, 2015, http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20150622/PC1603/150629833.
3. Amy Chozik, “Hillary Clinton Says Confederate Flag ‘Shouldn’t Fly Anywhere,’ ” New York Times, June 23, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/24/us/politics/hillary-clinton-says-confederate-flag-shouldnt-fly-anywhere.html.
4. Jonathan Martin, “Republicans Tread Carefully in Fight over Confederate Flag,” New York Times, June 21, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/22/us/politics/republicans-tread-carefully-in-criticism-of-confederate-flag.html?action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=a-lede-package-region®ion=top-news&WT.nav=top-news.
5. Ibid.
6. Russell Moore, “The Cross and the Confederate Flag,” RussellMoore.com, June 19, 2015, http://www.russellmoore.com/2015/06/19/the-cross-and-the-confederate-flag/.
7. Roldan and Kropf, “Gov. Nikki Haley Joins Call to Remove Confederate Flag.”
8. Brenda Rindge, “Jenny Horne: She Needed to Get the Flag Debate Back on Track,” Post and Courier, July 9, 2015, http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20150709/PC16/150709417/1006/horne-x2019-s-emotional-plea-pivotal-to-flag-debate.
9. Nikky Finney, “A New Day Dawns,” State (Columbia, SC), July 11, 2015, http://www.thestate.com/living/article26928424.html.
Chapter Four: The Sin of Slavery
1. Francis Robles, “Dylann Roof Photos and a Manifesto Are Posted on Website,” New York Times, June 20 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/21/us/dylann-storm-roof-photos-website-charleston-church-shooting.html.
2. John Smith, The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England and the Summer Isles (London: Michael Sparkes, 1624), 126; Charles Hatch, America’s Oldest Legislative Assembly and Its Jamestown Statehouses (Washington DC: Department of the Interior, 1956).
3. “Slaves and Thralls in the Viking Age,” Historical knowledge, National Museum of Denmark, http://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/power-and-aristocracy/slaves-and-thralls/; David Eltis and Stanley L. Engerman eds., The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3 AD 1420–AD 1804 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University, 2011), 275–85.
4. David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York: Oxford, 2006), 80.
5. David Eltis, “A Brief Overview of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,” http://www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/essays#, “The Middle Passage” (accessed January 25, 2016).
6. Timothy Breen and Stephen Innes, Thyne Owne Ground: Race and Freedom on Virginia’s Eastern Shore 1640–1676 (New York: Oxford University, 2004), 4–5; Winthrop Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 2012), 49–52.
7. Jordan, White Over Black, 5–7.
8. Ibid., 20–24.
9. Jennifer Morgan, “Some Could Suckle over Their Shoulder: Male Travelers, Female Bodies, and the Gendering of Racial Ideology, 1500–1770,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 1 (1997): 183.
10. Ibid., 181, 183, 189.
11. Breen and Innes, Thyne Owne Ground, 28, 30.
12. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 329.
13. Ibid., 312.
14. T. H. Breen, “A Changing Labor Force and Race Relations in Virginia 1660–1710,” Journal of Social History, 1 (1973): 17–18.
15. Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina 1670–1740 (New York: Knopf, 1974), 15–20.
16. Daniel Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, 1991), 76–78, 113; Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 137; Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1998), 143; Wood, Black Majority, 143.
17. Wood, Black Majority, 21; Philip Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1998), 61; Walter Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!: The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1989), 6; James McMillin, The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810 (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 2004), 110–14.
18. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 59–61; Wood, Black Majority, xiv; Walter Edgar, South Carolina: A History (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina, 1998), 32, 78.
19. A. Leon Higginbotham Jr., In the Matter of Color: Race & The American Legal Process: The Colonial Period (New York: Oxford, 1978), 171.
20. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 55, 181; Ira Berlin, “Time, Space and the Evolution of Afro-American Society on British Mainland North America,” American Historical Review 1 (1980): 46.
21. William D. Piersen, Black Yankees: The Development of an Afro-American Subculture in Eighteenth-Century New England (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts, 1988), 18; Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 49.
22. Berlin, “Time, Space and the Evolution,” 54, 74–78.
23. Piersen, Black Yankees, 122.
24. Ibid., 128–29.
25. Higginbotham, In the Matter of Color, 62, 72.
26. Ibid., 124–25.
Chapter Five: Revolutionary Ideas and the Rise of African Methodism
1. “From George Washington to Bryan Fairfax, 20 July 1774,” Founders Online, National Archives, last updated December 30, 2015, http://founders.archives.gov/GEWN-02-10-02-0281; “Liberty or Death” speech (text), Patrick Henry Center for Individual Liberty, accessed January 25, 2016, http://www.patrickhenrycenter.com/Speeches.aspx#LIBERTY; “Geo
rge Washington to George William Fairfax, May 31, 1775,” Library of Congress, accessed January 25, 2016, http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/amrev/shots/fair.html.
2. John H. Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994), 79–81.
3. Carol George, Segregated Sabbaths: Richard Allen and the Emergence of Independent Black Churches 1760–1840 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 24–25.
4. Richard Allen, The Life, Experience, and Gospel Labours of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen (Philadelphia: Martin & Boden, 1833), 6–7.
5. Richard Newman, Freedom’s Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers (New York: New York University, 2009), 37; Allen, The Life, Experience, 5.
6. Gary Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720–1840 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1991), 110–11.
7. George, Segregated Sabbaths, 42.
8. Allen, The Life, Experience, 7–8; Dee E. Andrews, The Methodists and Revolutionary America, 1760–1800 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 127–28; Newman, Freedom’s Prophet, 42–44.
9. Allen, The Life, Experience, 8–12; George, Segregated Sabbaths, 30–31.
10. Nash, Forging Freedom, 42–43; Andrews, The Methodists, 46; “The Pennsylvania Abolition Society,” accessed January 25, 2016, http://www.paabolition.org.
11. Allen, The Life, Experience, 12–13.
12. Ibid.; Newman, Freedom’s Prophet, 63–68.
13. George, Segregated Sabbaths, 51, 56; Rev. William Douglass, Annals of the First African Church, in the United States of America (Philadelphia: King & Baird, 1862), 15, 18–19.
14. Allen, The Life, Experience, 16; “About Us,” African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas, accessed January 25, 2016, http://www.aecst.org/about.htm; George, Segregated Sabbaths, 63.
15. Allen, The Life, Experience, 16–18.
16. Ibid., 14, 18–21.
17. Douglass, Annals of the First African Church, 12.
18. Christopher Phillips, Freedom’s Port: The African American Community of Baltimore, 1790–1860 (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, 1997), 117, 125, 128; George, Segregated Sabbaths, 56.
19. Phillips, Freedom’s Port, 129–31.
20. Ibid., 133, 135, 138; “Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church, Baltimore, Maryland, (1785–),” BlackPast.org, accessed January 25, 2016, http://blackpast.org/aah/bethel-african-methodist-episcopal-church-baltimore-maryland-1785.
21. Phillips, Freedom’s Port, 134–35.
22. Ibid. At first there were two bishops elected (Allen and Coker), but upon his return Allen, who had been away, objected, thinking it pretentious. They voted again for a single bishop, and Allen was elected. George, Segregated Sabbaths, 86; James A. Handy, Scraps of African Methodist Episcopal History (Philadelphia: A.M.E. Book Concern, 1902), 32.
23. Allen, The Life, Experience, 21.
24. Daniel A. Payne, History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (Nashville: A.M.E. Sunday School Union, 1891), 84; Martha Simmons and Frank A. Thomas eds., Preaching with Sacred Fire: An Anthology of African American Sermons 1750–Present (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 109–10; George, Segregated Sabbaths, 126.
25. Allen, The Life, Experience, 29–42; Newman, Freedom’s Prophet, 87–88, 94–95.
26. Julie Winch, Philadelphia’s Black Elite: Activism, Accommodation, and the Struggle for Autonomy, 1787–1848 (Philadelphia: Temple University, 1988), 34–35.
27. Paul Finkelman, ed., Encyclopedia of African American History 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass, 3 vols. (New York: Oxford University, 2006), 1:237.
28. Payne, History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, 84, 87.
29. Bernard Powers, “ ‘The Worst of All Barbarisms’: Racial Anxiety and the Approach of Secession in the Palmetto State,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 112 (2011): 139–56.
30. F. A. Mood, Methodism in Charleston (Nashville: E. Stevenson & J. E. Evans, 1856), 23, 28, 73, 86–90; Andrews, The Methodists and Revolutionary America, 126–27.
31. Mood, Methodism in Charleston, 116, 123.
32. Ibid., 130–32; Bernard Powers, Black Charlestonians: A Social History 1822–1885 (Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas, 1994), 20–21.
33. Mood, Methodism in Charleston, 132–33; Douglas R. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 110.
34. Powers, Black Charlestonians, 21; Peter Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren: David Walker and the Problem of Antebellum Slave Resistance (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania University, 1997), 26.
35. Vincent Harding, There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1981), 67.
Chapter Six: The Slave Conspiracy
1. “African Church,” Essex Patriot, June 27, 1818; Charleston Courier, June 9 and 11, 1818.
2. Lionel H. Kennedy and Thomas Parker, An Official Report of the Trials of Sundry Negroes, Charged with an Attempt to Raise an Insurrection (Charleston: James R. Schenck, 1822), 42–43; Douglas R. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free: The Lives of Denmark Vesey (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 77–81.
3. Marina Wikramanayake, A World in Shadow: The Free Black in Antebellum South Carolina (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina, 1989), 60, 63–67.
4. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free, 77; Kennedy and Parker, An Official Report of the Trials of Sundry Negroes, 43.
5. Kennedy and Parker, An Official Report of the Trials of Sundry Negroes, 19.
6. Ibid., 86.
7. Bernard Powers, Black Charlestonians: A Social History 1822–1885 (Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas, 1994), 30; Kennedy and Parker, An Official Report, 17–18, 67.
8. Kennedy and Parker, An Official Report, 67, 81–82; David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York: Oxford University, 2006), 168–69.
9. Kennedy and Parker, An Official Report, 18, 82.
10. Ibid., 23.
11. Jennifer Berry Hawes and Doug Pardue, “In an Hour, A Church Changes Forever,” Charleston Post and Courier, June 19, 2015, http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20150619/PC16/150619306; Alexis Stevens, “Report: Roof Almost Didn’t Go Through with Killing S.C. Churchgoers,” AJC.com (Atlanta), June 19, 2015, http://ajc.com/news/news/national/report-dylann-roof-confesses-says-he-wanted-to-sta/nmggX/.
12. Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free, 139.
13. Ibid., 135.
14. Powers, Black Charlestonians, 28; Kennedy and Parker, An Official Report, 64, 83, 96.
15. Kennedy and Parker, An Official Report, 34–35, 47, 50, 95, 97–98; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 32.
16. Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren, 38; Egerton, He Shall Go Out Free, 221.
17. Joseph E. Lowndes, Julie Novkov, and Dorian Warren eds., Race and American Political Development (New York: Routledge, 2008), 167–68.
18. Lowndes, Novkov, and Warren, Race and American Political Development, 167–68; Walter Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!: The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1989), 202–03; Wikramanayake, A World in Shadow, 58.
19. W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2009), 194–96.
20. Fraser, Charleston! Charleston!, 203–4; Powers, Black Charlestonians, 33.
21. “Brief History of the Citadel,” the Citadel, accessed January 26, 2016, http://www.citadel.edu/root/brief-history.
22. Ibid.; “History of the Monument,” Charleston County Public Library, accessed January 26, 2016, http://ccpl.org/content.asp?id=16261&action=detail&catID=6179&parentID=5908.
23. Robles, “Dylann Roof Photos;” Nick Corasaniti, Richard Pérez-Peña, and Lizette Alvarez, “Church Massacre Suspect Held as Charleston Grieves,” New York Times, June 19, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/0
6/19/us/charleston-church-shooting.html.
24. Jack Hitt, “History Returns to Charleston,” New Yorker, June 19, 2015, http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/history-returns-to-charleston; for an example of a disparaging characterization of Vesey in the local press, see Jack Leland, “Portrait of a Man: Denmark Vesey,” Charleston Post and Courier, August 9, 1976.
25. “Denmark Vesey: Freedom Fighter or Terrorist?,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, July 11, 2006, History News Network, http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/28013; “Deed Prohibits Marion Square Use for Parking,” Charleston News and Courier, November 20, 1945.
26. Hitt, “History Returns to Charleston;” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, “Denmark Vesey;” David Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2002), 67–71.
27. Hitt, “History Returns to Charleston;” Adam Parker, “Denmark Vesey Monument Unveiled in Hampton Park Before Hundreds,” Post and Courier, February 15, 2014, http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20140215/PC16/140219534/1177/denmark-vesey-monument-unveiled-in-hampton-park-before-hundreds.
28. Barney Blakeney, “Vesey Monument Unveiled as First to Honor an African American in the Lowcountry,” Chronicle, February 19, 2014, http://www.charlestonchronicle.net/78500/2152/vesey-monument-unveiled-as-first-to-honor-an-african-american-in-the-lowcountry.
29. Melissa Boughton, “Comfort in the Valley of the Shadow of Death,” Charleston Post and Courier, July 6, 2015.
30. Howard Bell, Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions 1830–1864 (New York: Arno Press, 1969), i; Richard Newman, Freedom’s Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers (New York: New York University, 2009), 264.
31. Earl Ofari, Let Your Motto Be Resistance: The Life and Thought of Henry Highland Garnet (Boston: Beacon, 1972), emphasis in the original, 150–51.
32. Steven A. Channing, Crisis of Fear: Secession in South Carolina (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970), 39.
33. Edgar, South Carolina: A History, 311; Simon Henderson, Aspects of American History (London: Routledge, 2009), 66.
