burn patients, 166
Burroughs, Silas M., 122
Burroughs Wellcome, 122, 293–94
Bush, Vannevar, 152, 153, 177
caffeine, 158
Calmette, Albert, 189
calomel (mercurous chloride), 5, 9, 164
Campbell, Walter G., 74
camphor, 164
Canby, Henry Seidel, 265
cancer:
leukemia, 43
Wilms’ tumor, 192n
carbolic acid (phenol), 34, 35, 46, 56n, 86, 87, 159
Carnegie Foundation, 256
Caro, Heinrich, 53
Carter, Charles, 233
Cassella Manufacturing, 57, 62, 160n
Celler, Emanuel, 271
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 251n, 302
cephalosporin, 3, 235n
Chadwick, James, 3
Chain, Ernst, 103–15, 106, 117–18, 120–21, 125–27, 129, 140–42, 144, 145, 148, 155–57, 165, 174, 175, 180–81, 198, 201, 221, 235, 293, 305
Chamberland, Charles, 26
Chatton, Edouard, 24
cheese, 134n, 138n
chemical reactions, 51
chemical synthesis, 50, 66
Chemie Grünenthal, 282
chemistry, 49
combinatorial, 63n
chemotherapy, 49
Chester County Mushroom Laboratories, 170
chicken pox, 11n
childbed (puerperal) fever, 67–68, 72
chlamydia, 217, 237
chloramphenicol, 3
chloroform, 164
Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol), 240, 244–54, 256–60, 268, 276, 279, 280, 287
aplastic anemia and, 249–52, 254, 258–62, 279, 281
gray baby syndrome and, 259–62
sales of, 253, 259
typhus and, 245–47
chlorophyll, 220
chlortetracycline, 244
Aureomycin, 216–19, 223–27, 231–34, 236, 237, 254, 272, 274
see also tetracyclines
cholera, 13–15, 26, 28, 35, 194
cholesterol, 220, 296
Churchill, Winston, 76, 119, 173, 293
CIBA, 127
CIBA-Geigy, 181
citric acid, 137–38, 164, 171
Civil War, 81, 163, 241
Clark, William Mansfield, 153
Cline, Joseph, 162
clinical trials, 207–8, 273, 274n, 288
children in, 260n
informed consent in, 289
of penicillin, 129–30, 132, 139, 141, 148
sampling in, 208–9
of streptomycin, 207–13
of Terramycin, 219
three-tiered structure for, 289–90, 292
clostridia, 87n, 125, 194, 198
coal tar extracts, 34, 46, 49, 159
coca, cocaine, 69, 73, 159, 241–42, 261
Coca-Cola, 73
Cocoanut Grove, 166–67
Coghill, Robert, 136, 137, 138, 148, 153, 157, 164, 168, 169
cognitive biases, 209
Cohn, Ferdinand Julius, 23, 25
Colebrook, Leonard, 68, 86–87
colistin, 297–98
Collier’s, 248
Commercial Solvents Corporation, 169
Committee on Medical Research (CMR), 151–53, 167, 169–71, 180, 216
computers, 173–74
Conant, James Bryant, 199
cortisone, 199, 220
Coulthard, C. E., 173n
Cousins, Norman, 265
Cox, John, 139
Craddock, Stuart, 93–95
Craik, James, 5
creosote, 34, 35, 46
crowd diseases, 183–84
Crowfoot, John Winter, 144
crystallography, 142–43
X-ray, 144–47, 174–76, 221, 235n, 293
crystals, 142
penicillin and, 142, 145–46, 174, 175
curare, 199
Currie, James, 138
Cutter Laboratories, 296
cytokines, 43
Daily Mail, 149
Dale, Henry, 122, 149, 161
Dalton, John, 49
damiana, 242
Daptomycin, 303
Darwin, Charles, 24
Darwinian evolution, 24, 234
natural selection in, 11, 234
Davis, George Solomon, 241–42
Dawson, Henry, 139, 165
DDT, 234, 246
detail men, 254–59
DeVoto, Bernard, 265
Dick, Elisha, 5
Dilantin, 242
diphtheria, 35, 44–45, 45n, 47, 122, 215, 242
Dirksen, Everett, 279
Dixon, Rand, 278, 279
DNA, 297
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 243n
Doctor’s Dilemma, The (Shaw), 79–81, 85, 86, 189
Domagk, Gerhard, 60–67, 61, 68, 76–78, 84, 87, 95, 96, 100, 103, 274, 305
Domagk, Hildegarde, 68
Dowling, Harry, 274
Dreyer, George, 101–2, 111, 112
drugs, 12, 36–37, 57
cost of manufacturing vs. price of, 277–78
costs of developing, 299
dangerous, protection from, 72–76
ethical, 12
as magic bullet, 39, 42, 48, 49, 52, 58, 68, 78, 217, 238–39, 298
prescriptions for, 12, 252
prescription vs. over-the-counter, 285–87
riskiness of developing, 292–93
safety of, 261–64, 283n
standardization of, 73–74
Dubos, René, 114n, 190
Duffield, Pearce, 241
Duggar, Benjamin Minge, 214–17
Duisberg, Carl, 62, 63, 69
Dunn, William, 97, 100
Dunn School of Pathology, 97–98, 101–3, 106, 107–19, 120–30, 123, 132, 133, 135, 137, 139–42, 145, 147, 150, 155–57, 161, 165, 175, 232, 235n, 247, 263, 295
DuPont, 161
Durham, Carl, 285
dyes, dye industry, 45–46, 52, 53, 54, 57, 62, 67n, 70, 94–96
aniline dyes, 46, 47, 52, 54, 64, 158, 244
azobenzene dyes, 52, 64–66, 68, 70, 102
tissue staining, 41–42, 46, 48
dyscrasias, 248–50, 254, 264
dysentery, 35
Dyson Perrins Laboratory, 103, 142, 144
earth, age of, 24
Eastman Kodak, 296
E. coli, 110, 185
Economic Report on Antibiotics Manufacture, 276–77
Edison, Thomas A., 160
Ehrlich, John, 243–44
Ehrlich, Paul, 39–45, 40, 46–49, 52–59, 62, 63, 68, 84, 86, 95–96, 100, 102, 104, 131, 141, 215, 238–39, 249, 261, 272, 274, 293, 296, 305
Einstein, Albert, 3
Elder, Albert, 168, 169
electrons, 51
elementalism, 8
elements, 49, 51
Elfstrom, Edgar, 260–61, 280
Eli Lilly, 161, 169, 170n, 172n, 203, 238–40, 296, 297
Elixir Sulfanilamide, 75–76, 213n, 264, 281, 282
Ellsworth, Henry Leavitt, 156
Elton, Charles Sutherland, 98
enterococci, 198
enzymes, 26n
epilepsy, 242
epinephrine, 242
Epstein, Leslie, 110
Equiram, Don Juan, 243
Erasmus, Desiderius, 56
ergot, 242, 261
Erhart, Charles, 164
erysipelas, 168, 172
erythromycin, 3, 238, 240, 244
, 268, 271, 297
eukaryotes, 24–25, 224n
evolution, 234
Darwinian, 24, 234
natural selection in, 11, 234
Evening Standard, 149
exotoxins and endotoxins, 47
failure rates, 292
Farr, William, 208
FDA, see Food and Drug Administration
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 76, 263, 264, 268, 283, 284, 300
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 227n, 276–77
Feldman, William, 196–201, 206–7
fermentation, 16–20, 22, 23, 26, 31, 138, 248
deep, 137, 156, 164, 165, 171
penicillin and, 137–38, 141, 156–57, 169, 171, 172, 174, 179
Fermi, Enrico, 99n
fertilizer, 50, 57, 63
fever, 43
Fildes, Paul, 77
Finland, Maxwell, 217, 251, 273–74, 280
Finlay, Alexander, 218
Fischbach, Michael, 304
Fisher, Ronald, 208
Fleming, Alexander, 86–96, 89, 100, 103, 110–14, 116, 125, 127, 128, 132–33, 148–50, 173n, 175, 180–81, 236, 266, 269, 274, 295, 301, 301n
Flemming, Arthur, 271
Flexner Report, 256
Florey, Ethel Reed, 98, 101, 126, 141, 269
Florey, Howard, 1–2, 97–115, 106, 118, 120, 123, 125, 126, 128, 130–35, 138n, 139–41, 144, 147–49, 151, 152, 155–57, 161, 169n, 172, 175, 180–81, 192, 195, 198, 200, 274, 280
Florey, Margaret Jennings, 125, 126
Folkers, Karl, 162, 199–201, 207, 230
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 76, 263, 264, 268, 283, 284, 300
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 75, 76, 223, 232, 248, 251n, 252, 259, 263–64, 268, 270, 280, 282, 287, 299, 300, 303
Chloromycetin and, 249–52, 254, 258–60, 262, 264
drug review processes of, 287–90, 299
Kefauver hearings and, 280
Kelsey at, 281–84, 287–93
Parke-Davis and, 259
thalidomide and, 281–84, 288
Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act, 300–301
Ford, Henry, 63–64
Fortune, 253, 255
Foster, Jackson, 191
Fourier, Jean-Baptiste, 147
Fourier analysis, 147, 174, 176
Fourneau, Ernest, 68–69, 297
Fracastoro, Girolamo, 13–14
France, 16, 19, 20, 29, 154
Franklin, Benjamin, 11, 12n
Freud, Sigmund, 241, 242
Fritsch, Homer, 251
FTC (Federal Trade Commission), 227n, 276–77
Fulton, John, 1–2, 97n, 133
GAIN, 301, 303, 304
Galdston, Iago, 64
Galen, 7–9, 14, 187, 213
gangrene, 35, 86, 87, 87n, 198
Gardner, Duncan, 120, 125
Gäumann, Ernest, 127
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 84n
Gay-Lussac, Joseph, 49–50
Gelmo, Paul, 70
genomic revolution, 298
Germany, 39–41, 44, 159–60
chemical and dye industry in, 57, 62
U.S. immigrants from, 164
Germany, Nazi, 62n, 115, 120, 137n, 177–80, 202, 243
concentration camps of, 52n, 140, 178
drug development in, 177–78
fuel oil supplies of, 178–79
Nuremberg tribunals and, 210
penicillin and, 127–28
germ theory, 15, 21, 35, 36, 42, 50, 59, 85n, 188
Glaxo, 121, 173, 181, 230
GlaxoSmithKline, 296, 298
gonorrhea, 13, 35, 78, 180
Gore, Albert, Sr., 277
Graebe, Carl, 46
Gram, Hans Christian, 94
gramicidin, 190–91, 235
gram-negative pathogens, 94, 181, 192, 194, 217, 218, 237, 244, 298
gram-positive pathogens, 94, 174, 175, 190, 194n, 198, 217, 218, 224, 238, 244
Graunt, John, 14
gray baby syndrome, 259–62
Gregg, Alan, 132, 133
Gregory, James, 143
Grimm, Wilhelm and Jakob, 39n, 181
Gross, Walter, 60, 62
guaiacum, 56
Guérin, Camille, 189
HAART, 293, 294
Haber, Fritz, 62
Haber-Bosch process, 63
Haemophilus influenzae, 6, 298
Hanson, Timothy, 214
Harben Lectures, 39
Harper, Robert N., 74
Harris, Oren, 284
Harrison, Ross, 133
Harrop, George A., 153
Harvard-wide Program on Antibiotic Resistance (HWPAR), 303–4
Harvey, William, 9, 35
Hata, Sahachirō, 55, 58
Heatley, Norman, 2, 108–10, 112–13, 115, 117, 122–26, 128, 130, 132, 134, 135, 138n, 140, 141, 148, 151, 156, 157, 162, 164, 165, 195, 197, 198, 232, 280
bedpans used for growing penicillin, 123, 123, 136, 137
filtration machine of, 123–25, 124, 293
Helmont, Jan Baptist van, 208
Henle, Jacob, 22
heroic medicine, 7, 8, 10–11, 36
Heyden Chemical, 225–26
Hicks, Thomas, 261
Hill, Austin Bradford, 209–13, 288, 291
Hinshaw, Corwin, 196–201, 203, 206–7
Hippocrates, 8, 183, 187
Hippocratic Oath, 8n, 12, 36n, 262
histamines, 186
histology, 41
Hitler, Adolf, 179
HIV, 293–94
Hobby, Gladys, 165, 219
Hodgkin, Dorothy Crowfoot, 142–47, 143, 173–76, 221, 235n, 274, 293
Hodgkin, Thomas, 143
Hoechst AG, 45–47, 55, 57–58, 62, 160n, 296–97
Hoffmann-La Roche, 163, 230, 268
Hollaender, Alexander, 165
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Sr., 36–37, 67n, 267
Homo sapiens, 183, 184
Hooke, Robert, 142
Hopkins, Frederick Gowland, 104–5
Hörlein, Heinrich, 63, 65, 68–69
hospitals:
infections acquired in, 301–2
sanitary environment in, 33–35
Hughes, W. Howard, 150
human microbiome, 301, 304
humoral theory, 7–8, 14
Humphrey, Hubert, 285
Humphrey-Durham Amendment, 285–87
Hunt, Mary, 135–36
iatrogenesis, 7
I. G. Farben, 62–63, 68–69, 71, 95, 100, 131, 159, 163, 177–79, 230, 299n
Ilotycin, 240
immune response, 48
immune system, 42, 61, 236
components of, 42–43
inflammatory response, 43, 48, 186, 278
immunity, 42–44
Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), 121–22, 173, 176
Indinavir, 294
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 162
Industrial Revolution, 11, 16, 178, 290–91
inflammation, 43, 48
Institut de France, 18
Institut Pasteur, 15, 31, 37, 68, 69, 295
insulin, 176, 239
iodine, 65, 164
ions, 51
Jamestown, 81
Jefferson, Thomas, 154
Jenner, Edward, 13n, 26, 44
Jennings, Margaret, 125, 126
John Hopkins School of Medicine, 8
Johnson, Lyndon, 277
Johnson & Johnson, 297
Jones, Arthur, 130
Joseph,
A. F., 144
Journal of Biochemistry, 109–10
Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), 228–29, 249, 255, 258, 275, 281
Jukes, Thomas H., 231–35
Kamm, Oliver, 243
Kane, Jasper, 153, 171–72
Keefer, Chester, 167–69, 170, 251
Kefauver, Estes, 277–81, 279n, 284
Kefauver-Harris Amendments, 280–81, 284–85, 287n, 288
Kefauver hearings (Antitrust and Monopoly Subcommittee), 277–81, 288, 291
Kekulé, August, 51
Kelsey, Frances Oldham, 281–84, 285, 287–93
Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord, 24
Kemball, Bishop and Company, 122, 141
Kempe, Henry, 266
Kennedy, John F., 284, 285
Kennedy, Robert F., 260
Kent, Jim, 107, 120
Kepler, Johannes, 142
Kimura, Motoo, 234
Kingston, William, 190
Kinyoun, Joseph J., 152
Klarer, Josef, 64–65, 70, 102
Klebs, Edwin, 44
Koch, Robert, 21–23, 21, 25–31, 35, 37, 39, 43, 44, 47, 50, 59, 82, 97, 100, 104, 122, 158, 187, 189, 215, 274
postulates of, 28–29
Kolbe, Hermann, 50
Krauch, Carl, 178–79
Krukoff, Boris, 199n
Kupffer, Karl Wilhelm, 61n
Kupffer cells, 61n, 62
Lancet, 87, 125–27, 132, 139, 145, 147, 212
Land, Edwin, 222
land-grant universities, 214–15
Langham, Derald George, 243
Larrick, George, 251, 282
Lasagna, Louis, 288
Laue, Max von, 143
Lavoisier, Antoine, 11, 12n, 18, 27, 49, 51
Lear, John, 265–71, 276, 277, 280
Lecture on Midwifery (Blundell), 67n
Lederle, 153, 168, 169, 215, 219, 223, 225
Achromycin, 226–27
Aureomycin, 216–19, 223–27, 231–34, 236, 237, 254, 272, 274
Lederle, Ernst, 215
Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 15, 23–24
Lehmann, Jörgen, 212
leprosy, 184, 188, 197, 283n
Lescohier, Alexander, 257
Lesher, George, 298–99
leukemia, 43
leukopenia, 249
Lewis, Sinclair, 208
lice, 245
Liebermann, Carl, 46
Liebig, Justus von, 19, 20, 50
Life, 228
life expectancy, 36
Ligon, Ernest, 239n
Lilly, Colonel Eli, 238
Lilly, Eli, 238–39, 263
Lilly Research Laboratories, 161
Lincoln, Abraham, 134
Lind, James, 207
Linezolid, 303
Linnaeus, Carolus, 15, 49
Lipitor, 296
Lister, Joseph, 31–35, 33, 37, 46, 56n, 67, 86, 93, 159, 294
Lister, Joseph Jackson, 32
Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, 295
Miracle Cure Page 37
