And many of the computer systems showing up in our lives will have a far more human touch than Watson. In fact, some of the most brilliant minds in AI are focusing on engineering systems whose very purpose is to leech intelligence from people. Luis Von Ahn, a professor at Carnegie Mellon, is perhaps the world’s leader in this field. As he explains it, “For the first time in history, we can get one hundred or two hundred million people all working on a project together. If we can use their brains for even ten or fifteen seconds, we can create lots of value.” To this end, he has dreamed up online games to attract what he calls brain cycles. In one of them, the ESP game, two Web surfers who don’t know each other are shown an image. If they type in the same word to describe it, another image pops up. They race ahead, trying to match descriptions and finish fifteen images in two and a half minutes. While they play, they’re tagging photographs with metadata, a job that computers have not yet mastered. This dab of human intelligence enables search engines to find images. Von Ahn licensed the technology to Google in 2006. Another of his innovations, ReCaptcha, presents squiggly words to readers, who fill them in to enter Web sites or complete online purchases. By typing the distorted letters, they prove they’re human (and not spam engines). This is where the genius comes in. The ReCaptchas are drawn from the old books in libraries. By completing them, the humans are helping, word by crooked word, to digitize world literature, making it accessible to computers (and to Google, which bought the technology in 2009).
This type of blend is likely to become the rule as smarter computers spread into the marketplace. It makes sense. A computer like Watson, after all, is an exotic beast, one developed at great cost to play humans in a game. The segregated scene on the Jeopardy stage, the machine separated from the two men, is in fact a contrivance. The question-answering contraptions that march into the economy, Watson’s offspring and competitors alike, will be operating under an entirely different rubric: What works and at what cost? The winners, whether they’re hunting for diseases or puzzling out marketing campaigns, will master different blends. They’ll figure out how to turbocharge thinking machines with a touch of human smarts and, at the same time, to augment human reasoning with the speed and range of machines. Each side has towering strengths and glaring vulnerabilities. That’s what gives the Jeopardy match its appeal. But outside the Jeopardy studio, stand-alones make little sense.
10. How to Play the Game
THE TIME FOR BIG fixes was over. As the forest down the hill from the Yorktown lab took on its first dabs of yellow and red, researchers were putting the finishing touches on the question-answering machine. On the morning of September 10, 2010, five champion Jeopardy players walked into the Yorktown labs to take on a revamped and invigorated Watson. IBM’s PR agency, Ogilvy, had a film crew in the studio to interview David Ferrucci and his team during the matches. The publicists were not to forget that focus of the campaign, which would extend into television commercials and Web videos over the coming months, would be on the people behind the machine. Big Blue was about people. That was the message. And the microphones on this late summer day would attempt to capture every word.
Over the previous four months, since the end of the first round of sparring sessions, Watson’s creators had put their machine through a computer version of a graduate seminar. Watson boasted new algorithms to help sidestep disastrous categories—so-called train wrecks. Exhaustive new fact-checking procedures were in place to guide it to better responses in Final Jeopardy, and it had a profanity filter to steer it away from embarrassing gaffes. Also, it now received the digital read of Jeopardy answers after each clue so it could learn on the fly. This new intelligence clued Watson into its rivals’ answers. It was as if the deaf machine had sprouted ears. It also sported its new finger. Encased in plastic, the apparatus gripped a Jeopardy buzzer and plunged it with its metal stub in three staccato bursts when Watson had enough confidence to bet. Even Watson’s body was new. Over the summer, Eddie Epstein and his team had moved the entire system to IBM’s latest generation of Power 7 Servers. If Watson was going to promote the company, it had to be running on the hardware Big Blue was selling.
In the remaining months leading up to the match against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter, most of the adjustments would address Watson’s game strategy: which categories to pick and how much to wager. It was getting too late to lift the machine’s IQ. If Watson misunderstood clues and botched answers, they’d have to live with it. But the researchers could continue to fine-tune its betting strategy. Even at this late date, Watson could learn to make smarter decisions.
Though the final match was only months away, the arrangements between Jeopardy and IBM remained maddeningly fluid. An agreement was in place, but the contract had not yet been signed. Rumors about the match spread wildly on the Quiz Bowl circuits, yet the command from Culver City was to maintain secrecy. Under no circumstances were the names of the two participants to be released, not even the date of the match. On his blog, Jennings continued with his usual word games, stories about his children, and details of a trip to Manchester, England, which sparked connections in his fact-swimming mind to songs by Melissa Manchester and one from the musical Hair (“Manchester, England, across the Atlantic Sea …”). Nothing about his upcoming encounter with Watson.
Behind the scenes, Jeopardy officials maneuvered to get Jennings and Rutter a preview of this digital foe they’d soon be facing. Could they visit the Yorktown labs to see Watson in action, perhaps in early November? This inquiry led to further concerns. If the humans saw Watson and its weaknesses, they’d know what to prepare for. Ferrucci worried that they would focus on its electronic answer panel, which showed its top five responses to every clue. “That’s a look inside its brain,” he said. One Friday, as a sparring match took place in the Jeopardy lab and visiting computer scientists from universities around the country cheered Watson on, Ferrucci stood to one side with Rocky Schmidt and discussed just how much Jennings and Rutter would see—if they were granted access at all.
It was during this period that surprising news emerged from Jeopardy. A thirty-three-year-old computer scientist from the University of Delaware, Roger Craig, had just broken Ken Jennings’s one-game scoring record with a $77,000 payday. “This Roger Craig guy,” Jennings blogged a day later, from England, “is a monster… . I only wish I could have been in the Jeopardy studio audience to cheer him on in person, like Roger Maris’s widow or something. Great great stuff.” Jennings, like Craig himself, noted that Craig shared the name of a San Francisco 49er running back from the great Super Bowl squads of the 1980s. (Jeopardy luminaries recite such facts as naturally as the rest of us breathe or sweat. They can hardly help themselves.) Craig went on to win $231,200 over the course of six victories. What distinguished him more than his winnings were his methods. As a computer scientist, he used the tools of his trade to prepare for Jeopardy. He programmed himself, optimizing his own brain for the game. As the Watson team and the two human champions marched toward the matchup, each side busy devising its own strategy, Roger Craig stood at the intersection of the two domains.
Several weeks later, in mid-October, Craig sat at a pub in Newark, Delaware, discussing his methods over multiple refills of iced tea. With his broad face, wire-rimmed glasses, and a hairline in retreat, Craig looked the part of a cognitive warrior. Like many Jeopardy champions, he had spent his high school and college years in Quiz Bowl competitions and stuck with it even for the first couple of years of his graduate schooling at the University of Delaware. He originally studied biology, with the idea of becoming a doctor. But like Ferrucci, he had veered from medicine into computing. “I realized I didn’t like the sight of blood,” he said. After a short stint researching plant genomics at Dupont, he went on to study computational biology at the computer science school at Delaware. When he appeared on Jeopardy, he was within months of finishing his dissertation, which featured models of protein interactions within a cell. This, he hoped, would soon land him a lofty research
post in a pharmaceutical lab or academia. But it also provided him with the know-how and the software tools for his hobby, and he easily created software to train himself for Jeopardy. “It’s nice to know how to program. You get some Perl scripts,” he said, referring to a popular programming language. “Then it’s just chop, chop, chop, boom!”
Much like the researchers at IBM, Craig divided his personal Jeopardy program into steps. First, he said, he developed the statistical landscape of the game. Using sites like J! Archive, he could calculate the probability that certain categories, from European capitals to anagrams, would pop up. Mapping the Jeopardy canon, as he saw it, was simply a data challenge. “Data is king,” he said. Then, with the exacting style of a Jeopardy champ, he corrected himself. “It should be data are king, since it’s plural. Or I guess if you go to the Latin, Datum is king …”
The program he put together tested him on categories, gauged his strengths (sciences, NFL football) and weaknesses (fashion, Broadway shows), and then directed him toward the preparation most likely to pay off in his own match. To patch these holes in his knowledge, Craig used a free online tool called Anki, which provides electronic flash cards for hundreds of fields of study, from Japanese vocabulary to European monarchs. The program, in Craig’s words, is based on psychological research on “the forgetting curve.” It helps people find holes in their knowledge and determines how often they need those areas to be reviewed to keep them in mind. In going over world capitals, for example, the system learns quickly that a user like Craig knows London, Paris, and Rome, so it might spend more time reinforcing the capital of, say, Kazakhstan. (And what would be the Kazakh capital? “Astana,” Craig said in a flash. “It used to be Almaty, but they moved it.”)
At times, the results of Craig’s studies were uncanny. His program, for example, had directed him to polish up on monarchs. One day, looking over a list of Danish kings, he noticed that certain names repeated through the centuries. “I said, ‘OK, file that away,’” he recalled. (Psychologists call such decisions to tag certain bits of information for storage “judgments of learning.” Jeopardy players spend many of their waking hours forming such judgments.) In his third Jeopardy game, aired on September 15, Craig found himself in a tight battle with Kevin Knudson, a math professor from the University of Florida. Going into Final Jeopardy, Craig led, $13,800 to $12,200. The final category was Monarchs, and Craig wagered most of his money, $10,601. Then he saw the clue: “From 1513 to 1972, only men named Christian & Frederick alternated as rulers of this nation.” It was precisely the factoid he had filed away, and he was the only one who knew it was Denmark. Only days before these games were taped, in mid-July, Craig had seen the sci-fi movie Inception, in which Leonardo DiCaprio plunges into dream worlds. “I really wondered if I was dreaming,” he said. After three matches, it was lunchtime. Roger Craig had already pocketed $138,401.
Craig had been following IBM’s Jeopardy project and was especially curious about Watson’s statistically derived game strategy. He understood that language processing was a far greater challenge for the IBM team. But as a human, Craig had language down. What he didn’t have was a team of Ph.D.s to run millions of game simulations on a cluster of powerful computers. This would presumably lead to the ideal strategy for betting and picking clues at each step of the game. His interest in this was hardly idle. By winning his six games, Craig would likely qualify for Jeopardy’s Tournament of Champions in 2011. Watson’s techniques could prove invaluable. As soon as his shows had aired in mid-September (and he was free to discuss his victories), he e-mailed Ferrucci, asking for a chance to IBM and spar with Watson. Ferrucci’s response, while cordial, was noncommittal. Jeopardy, not IBM, was in charge of selecting Watson’s sparring partners.
Before going on Jeopardy, Craig had long relied on traditional strategies. He’d read books on the game, including the 1998 How to Get on Jeopardy—And Win, by Michael DuPee. He’d also gone to Google Scholar, the search engine’s repository of academic works, and downloaded papers on Final Jeopardy betting. Craig was steeped in the history and lore of the games, as well as various strategies, many of them named for players who had made them famous. One Final Jeopardy technique, Marktiple Choice, involves writing down a number of conceivable answers and then eliminating the unlikely ones. Formulated by a 2003 champion, Mark Dawson, it prods players to extend the search beyond the first response that pops into their mind. (In that sense, it’s similar to the more systematic approach used by Watson.) Then there’s the Forrest Bounce, a tactic named for a 1986 champion, Chuck Forrest, who disoriented his foes by jumping from one category to the next. “You can confuse your opponents,” said Craig, who went on to use the technique. (This irked even some viewers. On a Jeopardy online bulletin board, one North Carolinian wrote, “I could have done without Roger winning … I can’t stand players that hop all over the board. It drives me nuts.”)
When it came to Jeopardy’s betting models, Craig knew them cold. One standard in the Final Jeopardy repertoire is the two-thirds rule. It establishes that a second-place player with at least two-thirds the leader’s score often has a better chance to win by betting that the leader will botch the final clue (which players do almost half the time). Say the leader going into Final Jeopardy has $15,000 and the second-place player has $10,000. To ensure a tie for victory (which counts as a win for both players), the leader must bet at least $5,000. Otherwise, the number two could bet everything, reach $20,000, and win. But missing the clue, and losing that $5,000, will drop the leader into a shared victory with the second-place player—if that player bets nothing. This strategy often makes sense, Craig said, because of the statistical correlation among players. He hadn’t run nearly as many numbers as the IBM team, but he knew that if one player missed a Final Jeopardy clue, it was probably a hard one, and the chances were much higher that others would miss it as well.
Craig bolstered his Jeopardy studies with readings on evolutionary psychology and behavioral economics, including books by Dan Ariely and Daniel Kahneman. They reinforced what he already knew as a poker player: When it comes to betting, most people are scared of losing and bet too small. (In Jeopardy’s lingo, which some might consider sexist, timid bets are “venusian,” audacious ones, “martian.”)
Craig would tilt strongly toward Mars. In his first game, he held a slender lead when he landed on a Daily Double in the category Elemental Clues. The previous clues in the group all featured symbols for elements in the periodic table. Craig didn’t know all hundred and eight of them, but as a scientist he was confident that he’d know any that would be featured on Jeopardy. He said he was “95 percent sure” that he’d come up with the right answer, so he bet all of his money, $12,400. It turned out to be the largest bet since one placed by Ken Jennings six years earlier. The clue was “PD. A great place to hear music.” For the scientist, it was a cinch. “Palladium,” Craig said, recalling his golden moment. “Boom. Twenty-four thousand dollars.”
That was when he made what he called his rookie mistake, one he was convinced Watson would avoid. His palladium clue was the first Daily Double of the two in Double Jeopardy. Another one lurked somewhere on the board, and he forgot about it. For the leader in Jeopardy, Daily Doubles represent danger, for they can lift a trailing player back into contention. So a leader who controls the board, as he did, should hunt down the remaining Daily Double. They tend to be in higher-dollar rows, where the clues are more difficult. Craig seemed to be on the verge of winning in a romp. With only seconds left in the round, he led his closest competitor, a medievalist from Los Angeles named Scott Wells, by a commanding $33,600 to $11,800. But he lost control of the board with a $400 clue: “On May 9, 1921, this ‘letter-perfect’ airline opened its first passenger office in Amsterdam.” Wells beat him to the buzzer and correctly answered “What is KLM?” Then, as time ran out, he proceeded to land on the second Daily Double. Craig was mortified. “I thought I’d die,” he said. Wells bet $10,000, which would put him well within striking
distance in Final Jeopardy. The clue: “In 1939 this Russian took the 1st flight of a practical, single-rotor helicopter, & why not? He built the thing!” Craig survived his blunder when Wells failed to come up with “Who is Igor Sikorsky?”
As he left the Culver City studios after his first day on Jeopardy, Craig was experiencing a host of human sensations. First, he was euphoric. He had amassed $197,801, a five-game record. As he headed out for a bite with the fellow players he had befriended, he felt a little embarrassed. Here he was, swimming in money, and thanks to him, every one of them had crashed and burned on their once-in-a-lifetime chance to win at Jeopardy. Between breakfast and dinner, he had doused the dreams of ten players. Many of them had prepared for years, even decades, watching the show religiously, reading almanacs, studying flash cards, wowing friends and relatives, and envisioning that they’d be the next Ken Jennings—or at the very least stick around for a few games. Now they were heading home with a loser’s pay of $1,000 or $2,000, barely enough for the plane ticket. Craig, on the other hand, might turn out to be the next superstar. It was at least a possibility. Ken Jennings had never won as much in a match or a single (five-match) day. No one had. That night, in his room at the Radisson Hotel in Culver City (which offered limo service to the Sony lot), he tossed and turned. The next morning, while a Jeopardy staffer was applying makeup to the new champion’s face, Craig found himself yawning. This was worrisome. The night before his magical five-game run, he recalled, he had slept soundly for nine hours. Now, he didn’t feel nearly as good.
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