The glossiness of these polished stones permitted different shades of colors to be selected according to the different tastes of the people who followed the popular custom of wearing necklaces.
Personal ornaments of metal consist chiefly of rings of copper or bronze sheathed with gold or silver.
The penannular rings are called kin-kwan when sheathed with gold, and gin-kwan when sheathed with silver. They are numerous and widely distributed.
The picture reproduced in Fig. 16 illustrates personal ornaments worn by a protohistoric lady. She wears a gold earring, arm ring, and necklace, and carries a bronze mirror attached with bells. A number of fine examples of these personal ornaments are collected in the Tokyo Imperial Household Museum.
Fig. 16. Protohistoric Lady
Tokyo Imperial Household Museum
CHAPTER 3
Early Buddhist Art: The Suiko Period 552-645 A.D.
1. GENERAL SURVEY
By the Suiko Period is meant the interval from the official introduction of Buddhism in 552 to the Taikwa innovation in 645. This period is also designated as the Asuka Period because the Asuka district of Yamato was the cultural center of the period. Buddhism, which is said to have been first introduced into China in the middle of the first century, began to be a force in China only some three centuries later. Indeed, it was during the time of the Chinese Six Dynasties that Buddhist images and temples were erected in great numbers, and there was much activity among the native scholars in translating the Buddhist sutras.
In this period Buddhism, reached Korea, and was carried thence by the king of Kudara to our court in 552, or, as some scholars believe, fifteen years earlier. Thus the influence of the Six Dynasties of China was felt by Japan most strongly during the era known as Suiko.
When Buddhism was first introduced to Japan, the Emperor Kimmei was inclined to accept the new faith, but the question of its adoption caused a hot discussion between the two powerful families, the Soga and Mononobe. The former family was in favor of it, but the latter was strongly opposed to it and urged that it would arouse the wrath of the ancient national gods. Finally the Emperor decided to steer a middle course and allowed Iname, the head of the Soga family, to believe in it privately as he desired. The dispute, which was as much political as religious waxed hotter and hotter, and at last the head of the Mononobe family was defeated and killed by Umako, son of Iname. Thus, about thirty-six years after the introduction of Buddhism, the anti-Buddhist influence was destroyed; and Buddhism continued to gain earnest adherents, among whom the most eminent was the Crown Prince, Shōtoku Taishi the second son of the Emperor Yōmei.
The illustrious administration of this highly intelligent and energetic Prince materially strengthened the hold of the religion on the people and advanced the general culture of the country. He compiled and had promulgated a constitution of seventeen articles, the first written law of the country. In it, he inculcated reverence for the teaching of Buddha, which he had made to harmonize with Shintoism. He travelled throughout the Kinai provinces, encouraging the erection of temples, for which he created the profession of painters to depict Buddhistic images. Also, he promoted literature, setting an example by his own literary works, introducing Chinese music into the country.
Under his administration Buddhism became the established religion of the state. There were 46 monasteries, 816 priests, and 569 nuns. The largest and most famous monasteries were the Hōkū-ji, the Hōryō-ji, and the Shiten-no-ji. The erection of these and other great monasteries was regarded as a very important affair of state.
The Buddhist sites of this period are most densely distributed in the district of Asuka in the province of Yamato, where there still remain large pillar stones of various temple buildings erected in this period.
But the Hōryū-ji monastery is the only place where one can see the temple architecture, Buddhist sculpture, and allied arts in wood and metal in the original conditions of the Suiko Period. It is, indeed, only in this temple that the early adolescence of Japanese culture can be seen in its original environment.
2. PAINTING
It is quite obscure what kind of painting had developed in the proto-historic period, except for very primitive ornaments, rarely painted on the walls of chambers in some burial mounds. They consist mainly of totemic symbols and geometric patterns in red, green, white, and yellow. When we consider the highly developed workmanship of the protohistoric period in metal and stone, it seems that besides such primitive patterns, there may have been more decorative painting.
Now, with the spread of Buddhism in this period, the Chinese style of painting began to extend its influence. Before the reign of the Empress Suiko, when the Emperor Yūryaku invited artisans from Kudara, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, an artist came accompanied by painters, potters, saddlers, and brocade weavers; and in the reign of Shushun, Kudara sent a painter called Hakura. These painters seem to have been engaged in decorative work.
In the 12th year of the Empress Suiko, there were the Kibumi painters, and the Yamashiro painters. They were relieved from certain taxes and allowed to make their profession hereditary.
The art of painting brought in by Koreans of this period was modeled on the Chinese school of the Six Dynasties, as was that of the sculpture. In China at this time, the art developed highly, and such famous masters as Lu T'an-wei, Chang Seng-yao and Tsao Chung-ta appeared in succession. It is said that they produced pictures of Buddha and of sages, which were full of life and movement. But today we can see none of them. We are, however, very fortunate in being able to see their style in the pictures painted on the famous Tamamushi-no-zushi, or Beetle-wing shrine, preserved in the Hōryū-ji monastery of Japan. The shrine gets this name from the iridescent wings of an insect called tamamushi (beetle) which are laid beneath the open work bronze fitting at the edges and sides.
The faces and limbs of Bodhisattvas and men painted on the panels of this shrine are slim; and both the composition and coloring are simple. But such are the characteristics of the figures painted in this period. (Fig. 17)
Fig. 17. Painting on a Panel of Tamamushi-no-zushi
Hōryū-ji monastery, Yamato
3. SCULPTURE
The art of sculpture in this period made remarkable development in the reign of the Empress Suiko. The Suiko sculpture was made chiefly of wood and cast bronze.
Among the Buddhist statues that have come down to us from this period, the number of bronze statues far surpasses that of wood, the former numbering some 65 and the latter only about 20; and most of them belong to the Hōryū-ji monastery of Yamato and to the Imperial Household. Those owned by the Imperial Household formerly belonged to the monastery. Some of those of the Imperial Household collection are placed on view in the Tokyo Imperial Household Museum. Some of those belonging to the temple are exhibited in the Nara Imperial Household Museum.
Among the existing Buddhist figures of the Suiko Period, we find Kwannon most numerous, and next in order, Miroku, Yakushi, Shaka and Shiten-nō or Four Guardian Kings.
The early works of these figures are almost Egyptian in their stiff impassiveness as will be seen in the example shown in Fig. 18; and in style they remind us of the statues of the North Wei Dynasty of China.
Fig. 18. Kwannon
Imperial Household Collection
It should be noted that they had traditional methods of representing different members of the Buddhist Pantheon in order to express different spiritual activities.
In the statues of Shaka and Yakushi, no stress is laid on any one part of the iconographic representation, but all the attributes of Buddhist faith are included. This is the reason why they lack vividness of powerful expression in any particular part.
The type of Bodhisattvas was almost feminine in form and expression. In the figures of Kwannon or Miroku, the shape of face, the hang of drapery, the attitude of hand and fingers and the whole posture suggested the womanly loving-kindness of the Bodhisattva, as will be noticed in Fig. 19.
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nbsp; Fig. 19. Wooden Head of Miroku
Kōryū-ji, Kyoto
As to the technique of casting bronze statues, we may judge from those remaining today. An inside model of a Buddhist figure was first made of earth, and then the model was coated with wax. The carving of the figure was done on the wax that had been thus applied to the earth model. The finished surface of the wax was then coated with a fine paste of earth; and then the wax was melted out by heating. Into the cavity thus made, melted bronze was poured to cast out a figure. Protruding hands were cast separately and attached to the body afterwards. After casting, the surface was made plane with files, chisels, drills, and other necessary tools such as are used in the sculpture of today, and the details were then chiselled with fine lines. Almost all the bronze figures of the Suiko Period seem to have been gilded. The gold was applied with mercury, that is, gold amalgam, the mercury being evaporated with charcoal fire.
Fig. 20. Head of a Bodhisattva, by Tori
Hōryū-ji monastery, Tamato
The most famous sculptor whose work is still remaining was Tori who was also called Tori Busshi. His representative works still remain in the Kondō of the Hōtyū-ji monastery. In Fig. 20 is shown an example of his finest works.
The wood sculpture of this age was usually of one block of wood and was always decorated with colors or brightened with gold foil, although the colors are almost entirely gone today. The best examples are still extant in the Hōryū-ji monastery, and one of them is shown in Fig. 21. It is an extremely slim and high statue, measuring about 6.8 ft. in height and expressing supreme feeling which transcends all human care. The posture, flat, thin and upright, with the regular pleat of the skirt, and the long side sweep of the scarf, all unite harmoniously as if about to ascend to heaven through the highest point of the oval shaped halo. The feeling one gets of them is that of mysticism and sublimity.
4. INDUSTRIAL ART
In connection with the development of Buddhist architecture and sculpture, metal-work and wood carving made remarkable progress; and textile work also began to make a new start.
Fig. 21. Kwannon
Hōryū-ji, Yamato
We have seen already that in the Archaic Period, swords, armor, and other weapons were produced in abundance, and that metal work had already made good progress, which was further accelerated by the necessity of casting Buddhist images and their paraphernalia. The excellent workmanship of metal ornaments is shown in gilt-bronze banners and the metal fitting of the Tamamushi-no-zushi or Beetle Insect Shrine in the Kon-dō of the Hōryū-ji monastery.
The gilt-bronze banners, belonging formerly to the Horyū-ji monastery are now owned by the Imperial Household. They are so made as to be hung from the ceiling. A grand banner among them measures 23 feet in height; and the top is in the form of a canopy from which are hung draperies and pendulums. All these banners are decorated with angels drawing back long draperies and honey-suckle designs, together with Buddhist and animal figures. (Fig. 22) They are all pierced and the details are chiseled with hair lines. The figures and scrolls are grouped harmoniously, showing wonderful gracefulness of curvature, through which the faithful may commune with the Buddha in Heaven. These gilt bronze banners are now in the Tokyo Imperial Household Museum.
Fig. 22. Part of Gilt-bronze Banner
Tokyo Imperial Household Museum
The pierced metal fitting of the Tamamushi shrine of the Kondo is much finer and more delicate; and it is more decorative in design, although the technique is the same as that of the gilded banners.
As to the textile work of the period, we see an authentic example, in the embroidered tapestry of the Chūgū-ji nunnery of the Hōryū-ji monastery. It represents Paradise or Tenju-koku, and was made in 622 in the reign of Suiko, on the occasion of the death of Prince Shōtoku. The embroidery was executed by court ladies. The tapestry originally consisted of two parts, each measuring 16 feet in length. The ground is made of two tissues —purple gauze and yellow aya. Buddhas, men, goblins, palaces, flowers, and birds are represented in threads of many colors such as white, red, blue, yellow, green, orange, and purple. Little by little the tapestry has decayed, and there now remain only fragments. But the color still remains beautiful, showing its durable quality.
In the Hōryū-ji, as well as in the Imperial Household collection, are some fragmental pieces of thin silk embroidered with angels in threads of various colors such as red, blue, green, purple, and white. An example is shown in Fig. 23. An angel is coming down from heaven, sitting on a lotus seat, and drawing back a long scarf in the air. The general composition is very decorative, the end of the scarf being transformed into a floral design, such as the honey-suckle peculiar to this period.
Fig. 23. Angel in Silk Embroidery
Tokyo Imperial Household Museum
5. ARCHITECTURE
Before Buddhism was introduced, the architecture in Japan was quite archaic, and there was no distinction in the style of buildings for shrines, palaces, and commoners' dwelling houses. Therefore, the most archaic style of Shinto architecture, called taisha-zukuri (the great shrine style), was identical with that of the primitive dwelling houses that had existed already. The Taisha Shrine of Izumo still keeps this archaic style of primitive Shinto architecture. (Figs. 24, 25) On the other hand, there was a more advanced style of Shinto architecture, called shimmei-zukuri, This style still remains unchanged, as is now well illustrated by the shrine of Ise. (Fig. 26)
Fig. 24. Izumo Taisha
Gov. Rys. Photo.
In the period of Suiko, the Chinese and Korean style of architecture was introduced into Japan, and the Japanese architecture was quickly revolutionized. This Korean or Chinese architecture was, at the time of its advent, a style that was developed almost perfectly; in simplicity and directness of construction, in subtlety and rhythm of line, and in dignity of massing, it showed all the evidence of the supreme degree of civilization that was attained in China in the last quarter of the sixth century.
Fig. 25. Taisha-zukuri Style
Gov. Rys. Photo.
A monastery belonging to this period, as a rule, faces south and is surrounded by a square wall with a gateway on each side. Inside the wall there is an open corridor enclosing a square court. The long corridor is interrupted in the front by a central gateway, and in the rear, by a lecture hall. In the square court stand a stupa and a Kondo or Golden Hall. Outside the court and behind the lecture hall stand a drum tower and a bell tower facing each other. The central group of buildings is surrounded on the north, west, and east by three viharas or houses for priests. There are also a refectory and a bath-house. Several other buildings, such as a Shōsō-in (treasury), a Seisho-in (office), are attached to the monastery.
Fig. 26. Shimmei-zukuri Style
The best and oldest example of monasteries built on such scales in the Suiko Period is the Hōryū-ji monastery in Yamato. (Fig. 27)
Fig. 27. General View of the Hōryo-ji Monastery, Yamato
CHAPTER 4
Buddhist Art Under The Influence of T'ang Art: The Nara Period 646-793 A.D.
1. GENERAL SURVEY
With the advent of this new era the art that had attained great development during the reign of the Empress Suiko now had to undergo a marked change because of political innovations and the effect of foreign intercourse.
In this period, Japan for the first time came into direct contact with China which had been newly consolidated under the T'ang Emperors. Intercourse was no longer confined to accredited ambassadors, but there was a mutual flow of monks, teachers, and traders who plied between the two countries. The art of this T'ang Dynasty had a great influence on the Japanese art of this period. China was consolidated in the Sui Dynasty following the Six Dynasties, but it remained for T'ai Tsung, the great Emperor of the T'ang Dynasty, to use this consolidation as a basis for the extension of his power. He was a great general and a romantic character; his conquests extended far along the caravan route towards India. Trade centers on this route, like Tu
rfan and Khotan, were in a flourishing condition, and sea communication, as well as that by land, was, if not regular, at least frequent.
In the corresponding age in Japan, the Emperor and Empress respected both Buddhism and Confucianism, the former as the spiritual guide of the masses, and the latter as furnishing administrative principles, so that the two attained great prosperity side by side. The activity of the Buddhist movement at this period was shown in various directions: in the erection of many monasteries, such as the Yamashina-ji, Sufuku-ji, Daian-ji, Taima-ji, and Yakushi-ji; in the creation of numerous Buddhist figures in metal, wood, and embroideries; and in the reading of Buddhist scriptures at Court and among the people in order to invoke blessings for the people. All such Buddhist activity imparted a powerful impulse to the development of art and industry, which burst into splendor in the reign of the Emperor Shōmu, in the eighth century.
During this period, through China also, there was conspicuous Persian influence. This was seen first in decorative art in which attempts were made to reproduce a Persian design composed of birds and animals among grape vines which was familiar to the Persians of the later Sassanidae; or a design composed of lions in a hunting scene, strongly retaining Mesopotamian characteristics. Of such Persian designs we shall treat later.
A History of Japanese Art Page 6
