9. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
In the musical instruments of the Shōsō-in collection we find some beautiful examples of highly decorative ornaments, which illustrate the motif and technical excellence of the carved and inlaid work developed in the Nara Period.
One of the most beautiful instruments is a seven-stringed psaltery. The surface and back side are all lacquered black and inlaid with gold and silver plates cut into figures, animals, flowers, birds, and butterflies. These designs are first incrusted and then polished off evenly. The principal design is enclosed in the square on the upper part. (Fig. 43) In the enclosure three saints are sitting among the trees and flowers, each playing a different musical instrument. Flowers bloom on the ground, and a large peacock spreads its plumage as though about to dance. From the upper corners two saints are coming down, each of them riding over the clouds on a phoenix to join the music party below. In the middle part, under the strings, is painted a long stream of water, symbolizing the melodious murmuring sound of a river. The backside is also decorated with flowers, phoenixes, and two large dragons. But more than to anything else we should like to call attention to the following inscription on the back: (Fig. 312)
Fig. 43. Design on the Upper Part of a Psaltery
Shōsō-in Collection
"The sound of the psaltery washes away evil passions. The quietude of a righteous mind comes in and a sublime feeling prevails.
"Vulgarity runs away, and capricious-ness is here restricted. Joy and harmony in the righteous way, but not too much pleasure."
Here we see the Chinese attitude towards music and the beauty of nature, which became the fountainhead from which Japanese taste was derived later. As a whole, the design represents the ideal state of happiness conceived by Chinese sages in association with the exalted rhythm of music played by them.
Fig. 44. Biwa Musical Instrument
Shōsō-in Collection
There is a musical instrument known as biwa. (Fig. 44) The back of the instrument is made of sandal wood inlaid with flowers and birds in mother-of-pearl, the pollen of flowers being made of transparent tortoise shell, under which is applied a crimson color that gives a beautiful effect through the shell.
There is also an ivory plectrum of excellent workmanship. (Fig. 45) The design is composed of flowers, birds, mountains, and two sacred animals called kirin. All are incised on a red colored ground. One of the sacred animals is stepping forward in a gallant way; and another, on the other side, is just perching lightly on a flower, like a bird with wings outstretched. It is said that the kirin has the body of a deer, the tail of an ox, and a single horn. Its alleged appearance was, according to a tradition, believed to be a happy portent of the advent of good government or of the birth of virtuous rulers, and the emblem of perfect good. Here, the animal for ornament, it is harmoniously surrounded with flowers and birds in a fine color scheme. Its excellent finish can hardly fail to evoke admiration even from those who know nothing of its symbolical meaning.
Fig. 45. Ivory Plectrum
Shōsō-in Collection
Fig. 46. Three-storied Stupa (N.T.)
Yakushi-ji, Yamato
10. ARCHITECTURE
One full century passed after the Korean architecture had been for the first time introduced to Japan in the Suiko Period.
Now the first section of the Nara Period, that is, the later half of the seventh century, which is designated as the Hakuhō Era, was a transitional stage between the influence of the Chinese Six Dynasties and that of the T'ang Dynasty. In the Hakuhō Era, the Buddhist architecture was, like everything else in Japan, greatly influenced by T'ang ideas.
The plan of the monasteries in this period differed from that of the Suiko Period in having none of the buildings in the inner enclosure. A pair of stupas facing south stood outside the inner enclosure; the Kondō, or Golden Hall, interrupted the Northern cloister at the center; and behind the Kondō, stood the Kōdō, or Lecture Hall, evidently conforming to the Chinese demand for symmetry.
As for the technique, the cloud-form of the brackets which we saw in the Hōryū-ji architecture of the Suiko Period, has almost disappeared by this time, and the eaves are for the first time ceilinged like the interior.
The sole architectural monument remaining from the Hakuhō is the East Stupa of the Yakushi-ji monastery. (Fig. 46) The entire height of the stupa measures 125 feet. It is a three-storied one erected on a stone platform; but, as each story has what is known as a "skirting roof," the general appearance is that of a six-storied stupa. Each story is furnished with balustraded verandahs. The addition of the "skirting roof" and the balustraded verandahs breaks the monotony of the outline in a most original yet most charming way; the stupa has compound brackets, which form a link between the cloud-shaped brackets of Hōryū-ji architecture and the triple bracketing system of the succeeding period. The finial, which soars to heaven from the top of the roof, is most shapely and gives a captivating grace to the whole structure.
With the permanent establishment of the Imperial Court at Nara in 710, the Chinese architectural style of the T'ang Dynasty developed more rapidly and caused a high level of perfection in the court and Buddhist buildings. The plan of the monasteries became far grander and they were built on a larger scale. The temples were rectangular and raised on platforms of clay and stone. The floors were laid with tiles. The pillars still had entasis though much less than in the former age, and often showed the beauty of columns in a row. The simple bracketing gave place to elaborate and massive triple systems with heavy beams and eaves in proportion. The hipped roofs of the main buildings were ornamented at either end of the ridgepole by shibi or kites' tails, as a protection against fire. The exterior of buildings was coated with red oxide of iron; the interior painted in full color.
Fig. 47. Lecture Hall (N.T.)
Tōshōdai-ji, Yamato
Of the palace architecture the only remaining example is the Lecture Hall or Kōdō in the Tōshōdai-ji monastery. (Fig. 47) It was originally the waiting hall belonging to the Imperial Palace group, which was given to the monastery when it was founded. It is the only relic bequeathed from the Nara Period that reflects the palace architecture of the 8th century. It is a single-story building, with a kind of gabled roof, irimoya, and though its exteriors were more or less modified at the time of the Kamakura repairing, the inside retains the former features unaltered.
Fig. 48. Golden Hall (N.T.)
Tōshōdai-ji, Yamato
The finest example of the Buddhist architecture of the eighth century is the Kondō or the Golden Hall of the Tōshōdai-ji monastery, near Nara. (Fig. 48) The hall stands on a stone platform and has seven column intervals in the façade and four on the sides. It is a one-story building surmounted by a hipped roof which is tiled and both sides of the ridgepole are decorated with kites' tails. The eight orders in the open space in front of the façade make a long columnal row, magnificent and imposing like the classical orders of Greek architecture. The columns are massive and have a slight entasis; the bracket and details are boldly and splendidly constructed. The exterior is painted principally with red oxide of iron while the pillars of the inside of the sanctuary are ornamented up to the ceiling with floral designs and with pictures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, which have now almost disappeared. On the whole, the hall is built beautifully and nobly, and maybe compared with any beautiful architecture in the world.
Of the other important existing examples of the Buddhist architecture of the eighth century, we have the Hokke-dō chapei of Tōdai-ji, the Shōsō-in treasury, the Yumedono of the Hōryū-ji, and the two stupas of the Taima-dera monastery.
As regards the dwelling houses of the people, no example exists today, but, in the reign of the Emperor Shōmu, officials holding court ranks above the fifth rank and also rich plebeians were permitted to build red painted mansions roofed with tiles. From this time on, tiled roofs seem to have been in general use. This permission shows that the construction of dwelling houses made remarkable
development and that there were epoch-making changes. Together with other highly developed arts, the architectural appearance of the streets in the capital of Nara must have been magnificent.
CHAPTER 5
The Art Of Esoteric Buddhism: The Heian Period 794-893 A.D.
1. GENERAL SURVEY
The Heian Period began with the removal of the capital from Nara to Heian (Kyoto) in 794 and lasted until about the end of the 9th century, when Japanese intercourse with China was interrupted by the civil wars that overthrew the T'ang Emperors.
In the eighth century the Imperial court and government were devoted to Buddhism and levied taxes for the purpose of encouraging it, bestowing large sums on the existent temples or building new ones. Consequently, not only did the financial condition of the state grow poor, but the distinction between government and religion became confused, and the arrogance of the priesthood was beyond description. At such a time, the Emperor Kwammu ascended the throne. The new Emperor was pre-eminently a great character; and, understanding the actual tendency of the age, spent all his energy in social and political reform. He removed the seat of government to Yamashiro and called the place Heian or "Peace and Ease." The greater convenience of the new site would have been a suitable reason for the removal, but the more direct reason was to escape from the shadow of the great monasteries of Nara. His founding of the new capital awakened the people to activity and brought about a complete social reform. It gave the people a new hope and new ideals.
As China had troubles in and out of her country in these days, and was in a disturbed condition, Japan did not draw much from her institutions; but in China famous writers, poets, and priests arose in succession; literature, art, and religion developed to a high degree; and this progress, no doubt, had a great influence on the new development of Japan. Yet in these days, unlike that of the preceding period, the adherence to the Chinese style was not pushed to the point of absolute imitation.
Almost all the priests who had been to China in these days were eminently talented and of penetrating minds. Among all these priests Saichō (Dengyō Daishi) and Kūkai (Kōbō Daishi) were the greatest.
The priest Kūkai brought back the first word of esotericism, and began to perform the secret rites of esoteric baptism in the year 812. Many of the eminent monks of the time joined in the movement.
The new capital, which had been laid out on Chinese lines, had a great monastery on each side of the main port, the eastern one (Tō-ji) of which was given over to Kōbō Daishi to form the headquarters of his esoteric teachings. Later he founded another great monastery on the summit of the sequestered Mount Kōya.
The site to the north of the city was given to Dengyō Daishi, the rival of Kōbō Daishi, who had started the Tendai sect, for his monastery of Enryaku-ji, in order that the capital might be protected from its ill-omened quarter by a sacred influence. This was enlarged by the priest Chishō Daishi and his successors, and became a great seat of learning.
The doctrines of these two sects accorded well with the belief of the day. As many distinguished priests administered them they exerted a good influence side by side with the government, and the Emperors and all the nobles, not to speak of the common people, came to believe in them.
In addition, Kūkai and Saichō completed their work of identifying Buddhistic with Shinto deities and made Buddhism and Shintoism common in many respects by identifying names and ceremonies. Thus Buddhism brought about a great change in the architecture of Shinto shrines.
Artistically, the later T'ang influence, which is noticeable in this period, differed from that of the eighth century; on the one hand, in having a stronger tinge of the Indian ideals brought by the esoteric sect, and on the other, in showing the effects of the Chinese nationalization of the early forms from India.
In this period a notable change was brought into the Buddhist art; first by the Shingon, and then by the Tendai sect.
Both sects needed a large number of new iconographic representations of Buddhist deities.
The priest Kukai, the founder of esoteric Buddhism in Japan, brought home a complete set of sutras containing symbolic codes, which gave directions on how to make Buddhist images and prescribed symbolic services. He also put them into practice and attracted the hearts of the faithful.
The arts of painting and sculpture were taken as a regular course in the study of Buddhism, priests learning them with other subjects. Special encouragement was given them in the Shingon monasteries. Kūkai, Saichō, and many other eminent priests brought Buddhist paintings and images and many precious things from China; at the same time, it was customary then to paint portraits of great priests whom they adored and to hang them on the walls. The prosperity of Buddhist painting in this period was at its height when the Emperor Seiwa, about the middle of the ninth century, encouraged it still further by dividing a large number of paintings representing Buddhist figures among the Ministers of the Imperial Court, and distributing them in all parts of the country. As the Buddhist pictures that were painted by priests enlightened the people, the higher classes, in like manner, began to paint pictures at all possible times, thus painting became a great fashion among the aristocracy. By and by, the people who appreciated the beauty of Chinese pictures became desirous of imitating them, and some who were good calligraphers spent their spare time, as did the priests, in painting trees, birds, animals, landscapes, and human figures, and then used them for ornament in temples and monasteries by mounting them on sliding screens or folding screens. This love of painting led to the birth of a new school of non-religious pictures under an entirely different class of painters.
In short, this period of one hundred years was an age of great effort. The leading aims were to utilize Chinese civilization for the advancement of our culture and to prepare our national character for the future; and because of this spirit the fine arts in this period were full of life and began to show much originality.
2. PAINTING
Painting in the Heian Period made a new development and began to show great genius for assimilating the Chinese style. Eminent priests, such as Kūkai, Saichō, Chisen, Jitsuei, Enchin, and Kokū, were all noted masters of Buddhist figures. Beside them, there appeared two great lay masters, Kudara Kawanari and Kose Kanaoka. These two masters and their followers painted secular subjects.
Fig. 49. Fukū (N.T.)
Kyoto Onshi Museum of Art
Kudara Kawanari attended the court and it is said that he painted portraits and scenery very realistically. However, none of his works is extant.
Kose Kanaoka was a great genius in painting and drew many kinds of things very realistically. The horses and the images of scholars which he painted in the palace at the Imperial command were very famous. His name is pre-eminent in the history of Japanese painting, and although many a painting is attributed to him there now exists not a single picture which is admitted to be from his brush.
The best representative examples of paintings that remain from this period are the portraits of the seven Shingon Patriarchs in the Tō-ji monastery, the portrait of the priest Gonzō in the Fumon-in, the picture of the Red Fudō in the Myō-ō-in, and the Yellow Fudō of the Mii-dera.
The five portraits of seven patriarchs of the Shingon sect, owned by the Tō-ji monastery, were brought back from China in the time of Kōbō Daishi; and they are said to have been painted by the famous Chinese painter Ri Shin (Li Chen). They are unique examples which influenced the Japanese portrait painting of this period. The outlines of the figures are drawn with the lines called tessen which literally means "steel cord." The lines are drawn with even power so that there will appear no undulation. Such was representative of the lines used in this period. The portraits are now preserved in the Kyoto Onshi Museum of Art and one of them is reproduced in Fig. 49.
In the Myō-ō-in chapel on Mount Kōya is the famous Red Fudō. (Fig. 50) This is a unique example of Buddhist painting by an eminent priest-painter. It is after the Chinese style but expresses the Japanese min
d. This picture of Fudō is attributed to the priest Enchin (Chishō Daishi). It is painted in colors on silk and measures about five feet. The Fudō is represented as sitting on a rock enveloped in flames and holding a sword entwined by a dragon. On his left stand two attendants. The flames of Fudō symbolize the wisdom which burns off all dross and wickedness that hinder the progress of the spirit. The reddened body is delineated with strong black lines drawn boldly like a rude steel cord; the red robes are painted with large flower designs, while the drapery-folds are shaded with gold pigment. Such a work as this is really the spiritual creation of an artistic genius inspired by a burning faith.
Fig. 50. Red Fudō (N.T.)
Myō-ō-in, Mt. Kōya
Fig.51. Five Different Manifestations of Kokuzō Bodhisattva (N.T.)
Kwanchi-in, Kyoto
3. SCULPTURE
The statues of the Heian Period are lofty, sublime, and spirited. This is due to the fact that the priests of this period thoroughly understood the meaning of symbolism, and used the chisel themselves or ordered designs made to spiritualize material objects. But these statues are technically inferior to the Tempyō sculpture.
As to the medium of the sculpture, wood was largely used. The clay and dry-lacquer, which were very popular with the Tempyō sculptors, declined and died out.
At the beginning of this period, as we have said already, a number of priests who went to China brought back many Buddhist statues which gave a new esoteric meaning to our Buddhist sculpture. Although most of them are lost now, there remain five wooden figures of Godai Kokuzō or five different manifestations of the Bodhisattva called Kokuzō (Sky-Womb) in the Kwanchi-in of Tō-ji monastery in Kyoto. This set of figures was brought home from the Seiryō-ji monastery (Ch'ing-lung ssū) of China by the priest Ewun in the year 847. (Fig. 51) They are of Chinese workmanship, though quite Indian in spirit. The chiselling is comparatively primitive and is not so elegant as that in the stone carvings of the T'ang Dynasty now extant.
A History of Japanese Art Page 9
