69. Herbert Shapiro, White Violence and Black Response (1988) at 6-7, 12-13, 16, 21.
70. Singletary, at 13, 50, 54-55, 60, 65, 82-99.
71. Christopher Waldrep, “Black Political Leadership, Warren County Mississippi,” in Christopher Waldrep and Donald Nieman, Local Matters: Race Crime and Justice in the 19th Century South (2011) at 212, 237, 239-45.
72. Hahn, at 299-305.
73. Ibid., at 306; Lou Falkner Williams, “Federal Enforcement of Black Rights in the Post Redemption South: The Ellenton Riot Case,” in Waldrep and Nieman, Local Matters: Race Crime and Justice in the 19th Century South (2011) at 176.
74. Hahn, at 306-310.
75. Rayford W. Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro: From Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson (Da Capo Press 1997) at 91; Cong. Rec., 56th Cong. 2242-2245; 2nd Sess. 557, 647, 657.
76. Halbrook, at 137, 142-143.
77. Ibid., at 143.
78. Charles Lane, The Day Freedom Died: The Colfax Massacre, the Supreme Court, and the Betrayal of Reconstruction (2008) at 35-36, 54, 72-75.
79. Ibid., at 75-80.
80. Ibid., at 93, 97.
81. Ibid., at 9-11, 106.
82. Halbrook, at 166; “The Grant Parish Prisoners,” New Orleans Republican, June 21, 1874, at 1, 4.
83. Shawn Leigh Alexander, An Army of Lions: The Civil Rights Struggle before the NAACP (2012) at 3-4.
CHAPTER 4: NADIR
1. Linda O. McMurry, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (1998) at 19-20; Memphis Argus, August 24, 1865.
2. McMurry, at 26-30, 128-133.
3. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race (1993) at 67.
4. McMurry, at 137- 139, 143-145; Lewis, at 67.
5. Paula Giddings, Ida: A Sword among Lions (2008) at 214; McMurry, at 147-148.
6. Ida B. Wells Barnett, On Lynchings (2002) at 110-111; McMurry, at 158-159.
7. Ida B. Wells, Southern Horrors, in Selected Works of Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1991), at 42; McMurry, at 161, 164.
8. Giddings, at 74; McMurry, at 128-129.
9. McMurry, at 129, 155.
10. R. L. Wilson, The Winchester: An American Legend (1991) at 11.
11. Wright, at 169-170.
12. Margaret Vandiver, Lethal Punishment: Lynchings and Legal Executions in the South (2006) at 179.
13. McMillen, at 226.
14. W. F. Brundage, “The Darien Insurrection of 1899: Black Protest during Nadir of Race Relations,” 74 Georgia Historical Quarterly 234-253 (1990).
15. Wright, at 170-171.
16. Shawn Leigh Alexander, Army of Lions: The Civil Rights Struggle before the NAACP (2011) at 2.
17. Gerald H. Gaither, Blacks and the Populist Movement: Ballots and Bigotry in the New South (2005) at x-xi.
18. Joseph Gerteis, Class and the Color Line: Interracial Class Coalition in the Knights of Labor and the Populist Movement (2007).
19. Hahn, at 418; William Loren Rogers, “Negro Knights of Labor in Arkansas: A Case Study of the Miscellaneous Strike” 10 Labor History 498-505 (1969).
20. Hahn, at 422; William F. Holmes, “The Leflore County Massacre and the Demise of the Colored Farmers’ Alliance,” 34 Phylon 267-274 ( 1973); Gaither, at 27.
21. Mob Rule, in Selected Works of Id B. Wells; Alexander, at 158.
22. Joel Williamson, A Rage for Order (1986) at 134; Blackmon, at 99, 82.
23. Williamson, at 134-136.
24. Ida B. Wells, Robert Charles and His Fight to the Death: The Story of His Life. Burning Human Beings Alive. Other Lynching Statistics, in Selected Works of Ida B. Wells Barnett (1991) at 277.
25. Williamson, at 136-141.
26. Wells, Robert Charles, in Selected Works, at 254, 257-258, 277-278.
27. Louis Armstrong, Satchamo: My Life in New Orleans (1954) at 33-39.
28. See chapter 9 for Wells’s discussion of black crime in Chicago.
29. The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883). Alexander, at 6.
30. Emma Lou Thornbrough, T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist (1972) at 14; Alexander, at 5.
31. Thornbrough, at 15.
32. Alexander, at 5, 22; New York Age, December 21, 1889.
33. Compilation of Proceedings of the Afro-American League National Convention (January 1890) at 18.
34. Michael D’Orso, Rosewood: Like Judgment Day (1996) at 54-55.
35. Thornbrough, at 119.
36. Ibid., at 48-49.
37. Ibid., at 182.
38. Ibid., at 16, 48-50, 156, 166, 170, 184, 207-210, 257-258, 264, 296-297, 317, 320-321.
39. Lewis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington, the Wizard of Tuskegee (1983) at 444.
40. Thornbrough, at 193, 198-200.
41. Ibid., at 218; Washington Post, August 7, 1901.
42. Ibid., at 279; New York Age, September 27, October 4, 1906.
43. Alexander, at 16; New York Age, January 5, 1889.
44. Thornbrough, at 368; Amsterdam News, June 13, 1928.
45. Giddings, at 397-400.
46. Shapiro, at 77; Washington Post, November 21, 1898.
47. Shapiro, at 78; Washington Bee, November 5, 1898, Cleveland Gazette, November 19, 1898.
48. Tyson, Radio Free, at 211; “Bad Nigger with a Winchester: Colored Editors Declare for Armed Resistance to Lynch Law,” Washington Post, August 10, 1901.
49. Alexander, at 78; Alexander Walters, My Life and Work (1917) at 98.
50. Alexander, at 111-113.
51. Andre E. Johnson, The Forgotten Prophet, Bishop Henry McNeal Turner and the African-American Prophetic Tradition (2012) at 109-110.
52. Manuscript in John E. Bruce Collection, folder 7, Shomburg Collection, New York Public Library. See also http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-9399827, last accessed October 25, 2013.
53. Alexander, at 16, 113-114, 175-176.
54. Earl Ofari, Let Your Motto Be Resistance: The Life and Thought of Henry Highland Garnet (1972) at 135, Appendix 2. Martin B. Pasternak, “Rise Now and Fly to Arms: The Life of Henry Highland Garnet,” PhD dissertation Univ. Mass. (1981) at 77.
55. Philip Durham and Everett Jones, The Negro Cowboys (1965) at 222-223.
56. William Loren Katz, Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage (1986) at 133-135; Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West 1528–1990 (1998) at 104.
57. Katz, Black West, at 13, 16-20.
58. Katz, Black Indians, at 135-138; Durham and Jones, at 7.
59. Katz, Black Indians, at 138-140.
60. Joel Williamson, A Rage for Order: Black-White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (1986) at 164; Katz, Black Indians, at 140-149.
61. Taylor, at 30; Katz, Black Indians, at 149-151; Daniel F. Littlefield and Lonnie E. Underhill, “Black Dreams and Free Homes: The Oklahoma Territory, 1891–1894,” 34 Phylon 348-49 (1973).
62. McMurry, at 140-141.
63. Taylor, at 147.
64. Katz, Black West, at 230; McMurry, at 142.
65. James Beckworth, The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckworth as Told to Thomas D. Bonner (1859); Ray Allen Billington, The Far Western Frontier: 1830–1860 (1962) at 48.
66. Durham and Jones, at 7-9, 15-16.
67. Wendell Addington, “Slave Insurrections in Texas,” 35 Journal of Negro History (1950) at 414. For the counting of Texas blacks in 1860, see Taylor, at 54, 76, 104; Durham and Jones, at 16.
68. Taylor, at 60; Ronnie C. Tyler, “The Callahan Expedition of 1855: Indians or Negroes” 70 Southwestern Historical Quarterly (1967) at 574 -585, 580.
69. William Katz, Black West, at 74.
70. Andrew Forest Muir, “The Free Negro in Jefferson and Orange Counties, Texas,” 35 Journal of Negro History (1950) at 183-204.
71. W. T. Block, “Meanest Town on the Coast,” Old West, 10 (Winter 1979); A. F. Muir, “The Free Negroes of Jefferson,” at 186; Katz, Black West, at 94.
72. Block, at 10; Muir, at 183-206; Katz, Black West
, at 94.
73. Katz, Black West, at 56-58.
74. John Marvin Hunter, The Trail Drivers of Texas (1925) at 671; Durham and Jones, at 26.
75. Durham and Jones, at 44-47.
76. Sarah R. Massey, Black Cowboys of Texas (2005) at 198, 148; Durham and Jones, at 63, 86-88.
77. Durham and Jones, at 55-56, 69, 85, 130.
78. William A. Keleher, Violence in Lincoln County, 1869–1881 (1957) at 110; William Lee Hamlin, The True Story of Billy the Kid: A Tale of the Lincoln County War (1959) at 81-83; Durham and Jones, at 101.
79. Taylor, at 84,; Durham and Jones, at 115-129.
80. Clifford P. Westermeier, Trailing the Cowboy: His Life and Lore as Told by Frontier Journalist (1955) at 110.
81. Durham and Jones, at 168-169, 204.
82. Arthur T. Burton, Black Red and Deadly: Black and Indian Gunfighters of the Indian Territory, 1870–1907 (1991) at 4, 25.
83. Katz, Black Indians, at 158-160; Burton, at 42, 45, 54.
84. Burton, at 85, 89-90; Katz, Black Indians, at 163.
85. Burton, at 110-111.
86. Katz, Black Indians, at 146, 178. Burton, 162, 179; Katz, Black West, at 146.
87. Frank M. King, Pioneer Western Empire Builders: A True Story of the Men and Women of Pioneer Days (1946) at 294; Dane Coolidge, Fighting Men of the West (1932) at 72-74.
88. Katz, Black West, at 198-199; Taylor, at 175; Frank N. Schubert, “The Suggs Affray: The Black Cavalry in the Johnson County War,” 4 Western Historical Quarterly 60 (1973).
89. Katz, Black West, at 222-223, 272.
90. Tricia Martineau Wagner, African American Women of the Old West (2007) at 15-17; James A. Franks, Mary Fields: The Story of Black Mary (2000) at 78.
91. Franks, at 42-46, 78, 109-111.
92. Ibid., at 42-46, 78, 109-111; Walter Hazen, Hidden History: Profiles of Black Americans (2004); Barbara Holland, They Went Whistling: Women Wayfarers, Warriors, Runaways, and Renegades (2002); David Wishart, Encyclopedia of the Great Plains (2004); Ben Thompson, Stagecoach Mary Fields, at 3.
93. Tricia Martineau Wagner, African American Women of the Old West (2007) at 15-17, 22-25.
94. Franks, at 42-46, 78, 109-111.; Thompson, at 5.
95. David Zhang, Fleet Walker’s Divided Heart: The Life of Baseball’s First Black Major Leaguer (1995) at 67-93.
96. Rebecca Goodman and Barett J. Brunsman, “Traveling through Time, Shelby County Historical Society: This Day in Ohio History,” 2005 at 39, available at http://www.shelbycountyhistory.org/schs/archives/blackhistoryarchives/bshangbhisyA.htm.
CHAPTER 5: CRISIS
1. Gerald Horne and Mary Young eds., W. E. B. Du Bois: An Encyclopedia (2001); Leon Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (1998) at 317; Christopher B. Strain, Pure Fire: Self-Defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era (2005) at 24; David Levering Lewis, Du Bois: Biography of a Race: 1868–1919 (1993) at 354.
2. Lewis, Du Bois, at 32-33.
3. The crime rate in Atlanta in 1905 was one of the highest in the country, with black men accounting for about 10,000 of 17,000 arrests—a worrisome indicator even after the modern caution that black arrest rates of this era are not an accurate reflection of true crime levels, considering, among other things, the strong incentives to dragoon black men into the convict labor system. Joel Williamson, A Rage for Order: Black-White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (1984) at 146-147; Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (2009) at 81.
4. John Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era: 1900–1920 (1977) at 130-131.
5. Lewis, Du Bois, at 67.
6. W. E. B. Du Bois: Encyclopedia, at 19.
7. Walter White, A Man Called White (reprint, 1969) at 10-12; Herbert Shapiro, White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery (1988) at 102.
8. Recall from chapter 4 that Washington also funded the journalism of T. Thomas Fortune, whose reaction to the riot was typically militant.
9. Shawn Leigh Alexander, An Army of Lions: The Civil Rights Struggle Before the NAACP (2013) at 278-282; New York Times, October 11, 1906.
10. W. E. B. Du Bois, Souls of Black Folk, in Three Negro Classics, at 297, 347, 373 375-77.
11. W. E. B. Du Bois, Crisis, October 1916 at 270-71; Shapiro, at 91.
12. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Let Us Reason Together,” Crisis, September 1919, at 231.
13. Crisis, October 1911, at 233.
14. Crisis, June 1912, at 64.
15. Crisis, August 1912, at 192.
16. Crisis, October 1911, at 233.
17. Crisis August 1913, at 179.
18. Crisis, July 1914, at 117.
19. Along the Color Line, Crisis, November 1913, at 323.
20. Along the Color Line, Crisis, March 1912, at 185.
21. Along the Color Line, Crisis, March 1912, at 189.
22. Along the Color Line, Crisis, March 1912, at 189.
23. Along the Color Line, Crisis, November 1913, at 324.
24. Crisis, November 1917, at 41.
25. Crisis, January 1918, at 115.
26. Mordecai Wyatt Johnson, “The Faith of the American Negro,” Crisis, May 1921, at 161.
27. Walter F. White, “The Work of a Mob,” Crisis, September 1918, at 221-223.
28. Crisis, May 1921, at 164.
29. W. E. B. Du Bois, Opinion, Crisis, May 1921, at 149.
30. Opinion of W. E. B., Du Bois, Crisis, January 1920, at 105-06.
31. George C. Wright, Racial Violence in Kentucky, 1865–1940: Lynchings, Mob Rule, and “Legal Lynchings” (1990) at 3, 147.
32. Ibid., at 9.
33. Ibid., at 15-17.
34. Ibid., at 185-186.
35. Ibid., at 187-189; Commonwealth of Kentucky v. Tom Croe and Others (1908).
36. Wright, at 188.
37. Neil R. McMillen, Dark Journey, Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow (1990) at 225-226; Meridian Star, November 6, 1906; Columbus Commercial, November 13, 1906. Similar cases were reported in Liberty, Mississippi, and Gunnison. Jackson Weekly Clarion Ledger, April 18, 1907; Jackson Daily Clarion Ledger, February 12, 1911.
38. Kay Mills, This Little Light of Mine: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer (1994) at 29-30; Greenwood Enterprise, February 12, 1904.
39. Horace Mann Bond, and Julia W. Bond, The Star Creek Papers (Adam Fairclough, ed., 1997) at 10, 141.
40. David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, Black Maverick: T. R. M. Howard’s Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power (2009) at 7.
41. Wright, at 189.
42. Nicholas J. Johnson, “Firearms and the Black Community: An Assessment of the Modern Orthodoxy,” Connecticut Law Review (2013) Part III.
43. Wright, at 190.
44. Ibid., at 191.
45. Ibid., at 123, 140-142, 191-192.
46. Ibid., at 124-125.
47. Ibid., at 116, 124, 132, 136-138, 147.
48. Ibid., at 152; Letter from Edward M. Bacon to Walter White in the NAACP papers, May 19, 1932.
49. Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (2008) at 1-2, 69, 79, 81-82.
50. Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age (2004) at 89.
51. Linda O. McMurry, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (1998) at 314, 316.
52. McMurry, at 314, 316; Boyle, at 89.
53. Lindsey Cooper, Special Rep. of Crisis, “The Congressional Investigation of East St. Louis,” Crisis, January 1918 at 115; Boyle, at 89; Elliott, “Race Riot at East St. Louis,” Crisis, July 1917; McMurry, at 314-316.
54. McMurry, at 314-317.
55. Franklin v. State of South Carolina, 218 U.S. 161 (1910).
56. Kenneth W. Goings, The NAACP Comes of Age (1990) at 12.
57. Goings, at 12; Crisis, November 1910, at 14; McMurray, at 287; Paula J. Giddings, Ida:
A Sword among Lions: Ida B. Wells and the Campaign against Lynching (2008) at 495.
58. Marvin Wolfgang, Patterns in Criminal Homicide (1958) at 84-88.
59. Vincent P. Mikkelsen, “Fighting for Sgt. Caldwell: The NAACP Campaign against Legal Lynching after World War I,” Journal of African American History (2009) at 464-486; Shapiro, at 147-155.
60. Mikkelsen, “Fighting for Sgt. Caldwell,” at 466; Vincent P. Mikkelsen, “Coming from Battle to Face a War: The Lynching of Black Soldiers in the World War One Era,” PhD dissertation, Florida State University (2007); NAACP, Thirty Years of Lynching: 1898–1918 (1919).
61. Mikkelsen, dissertation, at 477-78; Crisis, March 1920, at 233.
62. Mikkelsen, “Fighting for Sgt. Caldwell,” at 41; Crisis, October 1920, at 282.
63. Hubert H. Harrison, Baltimore Afro-American, June 10, 1921; Shapiro, at 159; introduction to Hubert H. Harrison Papers, 1893-1927 MS# 1411, Columbia University.
64. 261 U.S. 86 (1923).
65. Goings, at 15.
66. Moore v. Dempsey, 261 U.S. 86 (1923).
67. Boyle, at 120.
68. Ibid., at 95.
69. Ibid., at 96.
70. John Lovell Junior, “Washington Fights,” Crisis, September 1939 at 276-77; Herbert Aptheker, Volume IV: Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States (1960) 240-244; V. R. Daily, “Washington’s Minority Problem,” Crisis, June 1939, at 170, 171.
71. Edmund Kersten, A. Philip Randolph: A Life in the Vanguard (2006) at 21.
72. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto (1976) at 225-228.
73. Kersten, at 18.
74. A. Philip Randolph, “Lynching: Capitalism Its Cause, Socialism Its Cure,” Messenger, March 1919 at 9-12; August Meier, Elliot Rudwick, and Francis L. Broderick, Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century, 2nd. ed. (1971) at 85-91.
75. Ibid.; Randolph, at 9-12; Meier, Rudwick, and Broderick, at 85-91.
76. Shapiro, at 171; “Lynching a Domestic Question,” Messenger, July 1919 at 7-8.
77. Boyle, at 18, 118; “How to Stop Lynching,” Messenger, August 1919, at 2.
78. Boyle, at 118.
79. “The Negro Must Now Organize All over the World, 400,000,000 Strong to Administer to Our Oppressors Their Waterloo,” in Robert A. Hill, ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers (1983) 41, 42, 120212-20, Univ. Ca. Press.
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