Making of the Atomic Bomb

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Making of the Atomic Bomb Page 125

by Richard Rhodes


  Rasetti, Ginestra, 209

  Rasmussen, Knud, 226

  Rath, Ernst vom, 249

  Rathenau, Walther, 174

  RDX, 577

  reactors, see plutonium, production piles for

  Reich Research Council, 402–3, 513

  Reichstag, burning of, 25, 184, 185

  relativity theory, 19, 152, 168–73, 185–86, 260

  republic of science, 31–32, 33–35

  “Resonance in uranium and thorium disintegrations and the phenomena of nuclear fission” (Bohr), 287–88

  Reviews of Modern Physics, 346–47

  rhenium, 230, 349

  Ricerca Scientifica, 209, 211–12, 219, 226

  Richards, T. W., 358

  Riemann, Georg, 61, 76

  Roberts, Richard B., 270–73, 477n

  nuclear fission and, 283–84, 287, 289–90, 295, 315–16, 432

  uranium cross section and, 334–35

  Rome, University of, 207

  Rommel, Erwin, 355

  Röntgen, Wilhelm, 38, 41, 138

  Roosevelt, Eleanor, 526, 614, 636, 657

  Roosevelt, Franklin, 606

  aerial bombing and, 309–10, 471, 476

  atomic bomb project administration and, 378–79, 412, 423

  atomic bomb’s political implications and, 526–27, 531, 534–38, 562, 620–21

  Bohr and, 525–28, 531–32, 534–38, 561–62, 620

  Bush and, 337–38, 365, 377–79, 387–88, 405–6, 412, 551, 605

  Byrnes and, 618–20, 646

  Churchill and, 471, 500, 520–21, 527–28, 530–31, 536–38

  death of, 613–14, 617

  Einstein’s letters to, 303–4, 305–9, 312–14, 331–32, 635–36

  Frankfurter and, 525–27, 531–32, 536–38, 562

  Hopkins and, 337–38

  Iwo Jima and, 594

  military aspects of nuclear fission and, 313–15, 337–38, 377–79, 387–88

  nuclear chain reaction and, 306–9, 313, 317

  Sachs’ meetings with, 313–15

  Snow on, 537

  Stalin and, 536

  Stimson and, 618, 620–21

  Szilard and, 635–36

  Teller and, 335–36

  unconditional surrender and, 521

  Rosbaud, Paul, 236, 253, 256, 261

  Rose, E. L., 465, 467–68

  Rosenberg, Alfred, 183

  Rosenfeld, Léon, 193

  Bohr and, 58–59, 61–62, 76–77, 264–65, 267, 282, 284–86, 289n

  Roskilde, Treaty of (1658), 256

  Rotblat, Joseph, 356

  Rothschild, Baron Edmond de, 86, 87, 90

  Royal Astronomical Society, 169

  Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, 55

  Royal Society of London, 37, 39, 96, 153, 169, 330

  Rozental, Stefan, 56, 329, 482, 483

  Russell, A. S., 82, 156

  Russell, Bertrand, 123

  Russia, Imperial, 178–79, 180–81, 183

  Rust, Bernhard, 402–3

  Rutherford, Ernest, 23, 80, 83, 109, 144, 191, 198, 202, 216, 221, 231, 292–93, 652

  alpha scattering studied by, 47–51, 66, 130, 135–36, 151–52

  ambitions of, 39

  appearance of, 46, 134–35, 159

  Aston and, 138, 141

  atomic models of, 40–41, 50–51, 62, 71, 77, 83–85

  atomic transformation and, 27–28, 38

  awards and honors of, 37, 45, 159

  Bohr and, 53, 66–69, 71, 75–77, 81, 86, 136, 139, 229–30

  cathode ray experiments of, 39–40

  Chadwick and, 36, 50, 124, 135, 138, 153–58, 162, 164

  Curies and, 42, 44–45, 84

  death of, 228–30

  education of, 36–39

  electron theory and, 40–41, 51

  Eve and, 159, 230

  Geiger and, 46–48, 158

  heritage and childhood of, 36

  Kapitza and, 38, 164

  Marsden and, 38–39, 135–36

  Moseley and, 82

  neutron research of, 153–58, 162, 164

  Oliphant and, 38, 134–35, 229

  Oppenheimer and, 123, 125

  personal life of, 158–59

  radioactivity studied by, 42–46, 135–38, 170

  radio wave research of, 36–38

  refugee rescue efforts of, 193, 195

  Snow on, 38

  Szilard and, 27–28, 204, 215

  Thomson and, 37, 38–39, 49, 123

  Weizmann’s description of, 46–47

  X-ray research of, 39, 43

  Rutherford, Mary Newton, 38, 39, 46, 53, 80, 83, 229

  Rydberg, Johannes, 73

  Rydberg constant, 73, 75, 117–18

  Ryder, Arthur, 445, 662

  Sachs, Alexander, 316, 369–70

  Einstein’s letters and, 305–9, 312–15, 332

  Roosevelt’s meetings with, 313–15

  Sacre du Mesa (Flanders and Gershwin), 566

  Saipan, 554–56, 587–88, 593–94, 597

  San Francisco Chronicle, 273

  Sassoon, Siegfried, 102

  Sato, Naotake, 684–85, 693, 736

  Saturday Evening Post, 680

  Savitch, Pavel, 234–35, 247

  “scattering of α and β particles by matter and the structure of the atom, The” (Rutherford), 50–51

  Schacht, Hjalmar, 22

  Schiller, J. C. F. von, 60

  Schlossberger, S. V., 105

  Schrödinger, Erwin, 128–29, 131

  science, 31–36

  discovery in, 151–52, 218

  growing points in, 34, 38, 115

  racism and, 243

  republican model of, 31–32, 33–35

  in time of war, 90, 95

  voluntary limitation in, 35, 77

  Scientific American, 310

  Scientific Autobiography (Planck), 30

  scientific opinion, 34–35

  scintillation, 48–49, 157–58

  Scott, C. P., 88, 89

  Seaborg, Glenn T., 352

  atomic bomb project administration and, 412–13, 431–32

  Compton and, 381, 389

  Goldschmidt and, 579

  Oppenheimer and, 410–11, 420

  personal life of, 410

  pile studies and, 442

  plutonium research of, 353–55, 366, 381, 389, 407–10, 413–15, 476–77, 547–48, 603, 604

  Seaborg, Helen Griggs, 410

  Sea Lion, Operation, 341–42

  Search, The (Snow), 134

  Second Air Force, U.S., 583–84, 652

  Second Armored Division, U.S., 683

  Segrè, Emilio, 164, 202, 231, 299

  Bohr and, 114, 132

  Bothe and, 159–60

  Fermi and, 205–6, 208, 210–12, 240–42, 352, 395, 434, 444, 567–68, 674

  fishing enjoyed by, 567–68

  Los Alamos and, 451, 460–61, 540, 567–68

  neutron bombardment experiments of, 208, 210–12, 216–19, 349

  Oppenheimer and, 444, 449

  plutonium research of, 353–55, 366

  spontaneous fission and, 540–41, 548

  Trinity and, 652–53, 667, 673, 674

  Senate Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program, 617

  Serber, Robert:

  atomic bomb design and, 416–17, 460–64, 578

  critical-mass calculations of, 461

  Oppenheimer and, 449

  Teller and, 665

  Trinity and, 665, 668–70, 673

  sewer-pipe bomb, 478

  Shakespeare, William, 468

  shaped charges, 544

  Shape of Things to Come, The (Wells), 14, 26

  Sherrod, Robert, 554–55

  shock waves, 671–72, 674

  shock-wave theory, 415

  Short, Walter, C., 390–91

  Shumard, Robert H., 704

  Siegbahn, Karl M. G., 236, 250

  Silverplate, 584
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br />   Simon, Franz:

  on gaseous-diffusion barriers, 495–96

  isotope-separation experiments of, 339–40, 343, 345, 492

  Sinclair, Upton, 186

  Site X, see Clinton Engineer Works: Oak Ridge

  Site Y, see Los Alamos

  Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, 487

  slug canning, 557

  Smith, Alice Kimball, 502

  Smith, Cyril, 502, 657, 664

  Smith, Frederick, 41

  Smith, Herbert, 120–21, 122, 124, 445

  Smith, Holland, 554

  Smith, Walter Bedell, 629

  Smuts, Jan Christian, 88, 90, 99–100

  Snow, C. P., 134, 165, 319

  on Bohr, 53–54, 57, 125, 529

  on Churchill, 338, 529, 531, 537

  on Einstein, 168–69, 304–5

  on Roosevelt, 537

  on Rutherford, 38

  on Szilard, 21

  on Tube Alloy discussions, 537

  Society for Ethical Culture, 119

  Soddy, Frederick, radioactivity studied by, 42–44, 67, 170

  Solomons campaign, 518–20

  Solvay Conferences (1927, 1933), 132–33, 198–200

  Somervell, Brehon, 424–28

  Somme, Battle of the (1916), 101

  Sommerfeld, Arnold, 189, 364

  Bohr and, 113–14, 115

  Sörlie, Rölf, 515–17

  Soviet Union:

  Allied strategic bombing and, 469–70

  arms race and, 527–31, 534, 536–38

  German Army atrocities against, 475

  German Army counterattacked by, 401–2, 469

  German invasion of, 367, 501

  international control of atomic bomb and, 644–46

  Japanese surrender and, 684–86, 691, 692–93, 736

  nuclear research in, 327, 500–502, 529, 638, 649–50

  political implications of atomic bomb and, 527–31, 534, 536–38, 562, 620–21, 624–25, 633–34, 637–38, 642, 644

  postwar aggression of, 645–46

  Truman and, 621–23

  uranium ore available to, 638, 649

  Spaatz, Carl, 691, 736, 744

  Hiroshima target suggested by, 696, 699

  Spanish Civil War, 241, 446

  Speaking Frankly (Byrnes), 683

  Special Engineering Detachment (SED) GI’s, 658

  spectroscopy, 72–75, 82–83

  Spedding, Frank, 435, 439

  Speer, Albert, 402–5, 418

  Spitzer, Abe, 700–701

  Stages on Life’s Way (Kierkegaard), 60, 63

  Stalin, Joseph, 370, 469–70

  atomic bombing of Hiroshima and, 736

  Byrnes and, 646, 690, 692

  Harriman and, 621

  Japanese surrender and, 692

  Poland and, 622–24

  Potsdam Conference and, 682, 689–91

  Roosevelt and, 536

  Trinity and, 690

  Truman and, 622–24, 625, 656, 685, 689–91

  Stalingrad, 482

  Standardized Casualty Rate, 734

  Stassfurt mission, 607–9, 612–13

  State Defense Committee, Soviet, 501

  State Department, U.S., 437, 620, 630

  Stern, Otto, 147, 173, 190–91, 208

  Stettinius, Edward R., Jr., 628

  Stiborik, Joseph, 704, 706, 708

  Stimson, Henry L., 361, 378, 412, 525

  background of, 617–18

  Bohr and, 651

  Byrnes and, 682–83, 686–87, 742

  Eisenhower and, 688

  Groves and, 640–41

  Harrison and, 685–87, 688–89

  Interim Committee and, 628–30, 633–34, 642–44, 647–50

  international control of atomic bomb and, 645

  Japanese program of, 683–85, 689, 693, 742

  George Marshall and, 618, 640–41, 642

  Oppenheimer and, 643, 645

  political implications of atomic bomb and, 561–62, 620–21, 624–26, 633–34, 642–43

  Potsdam Conference and, 682–83

  Roosevelt and, 618, 620–21

  on targeting of atomic bomb, 640–41, 648–50, 686, 689–91

  Trinity and, 685–87, 688

  Truman and, 617–18, 622, 623–26, 628–29, 639–40, 650–51, 682–84, 686–87, 690–91, 742

  use of atomic bomb approved by, 691, 693, 696, 697, 745

  warning of atomic attack and, 639–40, 647–50, 682, 684

  Stolper, Gustav, 304, 305

  Stone & Webster, 412, 422–23, 429, 431–32, 487, 489–91

  Strassmann, Fritz, 784

  actinium-lanthanum experiment of, 253–55

  Hahn’s collaboration with, 234, 247–48, 251–55, 257–58, 262

  uranium research of, 234, 247–48, 251–55, 257–58, 261–62

  Strategic Air Force, U.S., 691, 744

  Strategic Bombing Survey, U.S., 596, 599

  Strauss, Alice Hanauer, 238

  Strauss, Lewis Lichtenstein:

  background of, 237–40

  Szilard and, 237–40, 267–68, 281, 287, 289, 292, 301, 507

  Strauss, Rosa Lichtenstein, 237–38

  Streicher, Julius, 25

  strontium, 511

  Strutt, John William, Lord Rayleigh, 62–63, 228

  “Studies in the electron theory of metals” (Bohr), 64

  Styer, Wilhelm, D., 425, 427–28

  sub-atomic energy, 140–41

  sub-critical uranium burner, 343

  submarines, nuclear power for, 549–51

  Sudetenland, 244–46

  “Super-explosive U235” (Hagiwara), 375

  Supreme Court, U.S., 619

  surge generator, 238–40, 281

  Suzuki, Kantaro, 693

  Suzuki, Tatsusaburoõ, 327, 346

  Swann, William F. G., 144

  Sweden, 256, 483–84

  Swedish Academy of Sciences, Physical Institute of, 236, 250

  Sweeney, Charles W., 739–40

  Szilard, Béla, 239

  Szilard, Gertrud Weiss, 236–37, 507, 735

  Szilard, Leo, 44, 264, 315

  administration of atomic bomb project and, 412, 413, 422–24

  appearance of, 13, 236–37, 507

  on arms race, 635–36, 637

  atomic bomb’s use protested by, 697

  on atomic energy, 25, 27–28, 213–14, 223, 268

  Berlin described by, 18–19

  biology as interest of, 26

  Bush and, 413, 505–6, 508–9

  Byrnes and, 636–38, 649

  Compton and, 399–400, 423–24, 503–6, 635–36

  on cyclotron, 21, 23

  Der Bund and, 21–23, 292

  eccentricities of, 506–7

  education of, 14–20, 109

  ego of, 21, 303

  Einstein and, 14, 16, 20–21, 169, 174, 303–4, 305–8, 312–14, 331–32, 635–36

  Fermi and, 280–81, 290–91, 298–303, 317, 331, 334, 338, 344–45, 374, 394–95, 442, 504–5, 508, 509

  government surveillance of, 506–7, 638

  Groves’s disagreements with, 502–3, 506, 508, 649

  Hahn and, 45

  heritage of, 13, 14, 27, 106–8

  Hiroshima atomic bombing and, 735

  on home refrigeration, 20–21, 174

  Jewish emigration and, 26, 192–95

  Laue and, 17, 19–20

  Lavender and, 506, 507–8

  Lindemann and, 222–25, 236, 246

  Los Alamos described by, 451

  Mandl and, 24–25, 26

  Manhattan Project challenged by, 502–10

  Meitner and, 25, 187

  military aspects of nuclear fission and, 303–9, 312–17, 331, 338, 345, 346, 350, 369–70, 372

  on neutrons, 28, 300

  on nuclear chain reactions, 28, 203–4, 214–16, 221–25, 246–47, 254, 279–82, 289, 291–92, 298–308, 315–17, 331, 334, 338, 344, 394, 397, 442

  nuclear
fission and, 267–68, 271, 287

  nuclear physics as interest of, 23, 24–26

  Oppenheimer and, 641–42

  patents of, 14, 20–21, 223–25, 239, 254, 271, 504–8

  pile studies and, 397, 411, 439, 442, 503

  Planck and, 16–17, 70

  Polanyi and, 25, 31, 70, 221–22, 224, 237

  political implications of atomic bomb and, 635–38, 641–42, 649

  politics as interest of, 14, 21–22, 24–25, 108, 508–9

  Rabi and, 279–80

  radioactivity research of, 44, 203–4, 238

  Roosevelt and, 635–36

  Rutherford and, 27–28, 204, 215

  Snow on, 21

  Strauss and, 237–40, 267–68, 281, 287, 289, 292, 301, 507

  Teller and, 281, 289–92, 295, 303, 306–7, 697

  on thermodynamic theories, 19–20

  Truman and, 636, 649

  Turner and, 346, 350

  utopian plans of, 21–22, 24–25, 107

  Weizmann and, 193, 221–22

  Wells and, 14, 21, 24, 26, 107

  Wigner and, 16, 18–19, 187, 266, 281–82, 292–93, 303–4, 312–13, 498, 507, 509

  X-ray crystallography and, 20

  Zinn and, 288–89, 291

  Szilard-Chalmers effect, 215

  Taft, William Howard, 525, 618

  Takeuchi, Tadashi, 458

  tamper, 214, 461, 545

  tanks, 103

  Target Committee, 626–28, 643

  agenda of, 630–31

  B-29 crew training reviewed by, 638–39

  targets selected by, 631–32

  Tatlock, Jean, 446, 571

  Taylor, Geoffrey, 522, 545

  Taylor instabilities, 545

  tear gas, 90–92, 94–95

  Technische Hochschule, 16, 87, 109

  Teheran Conference (1943), 536

  Teller, Edward, 127, 185, 428

  appearance of, 538

  atomic bomb design and, 416–20, 540

  atomic bomb’s use supported by, 697

  background of, 106–9, 111–13, 126, 179, 189, 415

  Bethe and, 374, 415–19, 453, 524, 538–40, 543, 545–46

  Bohr and, 500

  Conant and, 563

  critical-mass calculations of, 335, 540

  emigration of, 189–90, 193–94

  Fermi and, 231–32, 374–75, 565

  Gamow and, 225, 269

  on heavy-water piles, 524

  hydrogen bomb and, 374–75, 416–18, 539–40, 543, 546, 563

  implosion studies and, 540, 545–46

  Los Alamos and, 460, 538–40, 543, 545–46, 565, 570

  on morality of weapons work, 335–36

  Neumann and, 480

  nuclear chain reactions and, 289–301, 315–17

  Oppenheimer and, 415, 417, 444, 449, 453–54, 511–12, 538–40, 546, 552, 570

  plutonium extraction and, 410

  radioactive warfare and, 510

  Roosevelt and, 335–36

  Serber and, 665

  Szilard and, 281, 289–92, 295, 303, 306–7, 697

  thermonuclear reactions and, 418–20

 

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