by Will Dunne
• Certain figments of a character’s imagination can be seen by the audience. Example: as Matilde imagines her parents dancing and laughing, we watch them act out the events she describes (act one, scene 6).
• Certain figments of a character’s imagination can be seen by another character. Example: when Lane imagines Charles and Ana making love, Matilde also sees them in Lane’s mind and asks who they are (act one, scene 14).
• Magical events are commonplace. Example: Charles and Ana sing exotic songs while he performs surgery on her. When the operation ends, she emerges from her hospital sheet in a lovely dress (act two, scene 1).
• A sequence of events does not need to be depicted in chronological order. Example: after Charles and Ana arrive at Lane’s front door to announce that they are soul mates, the story skips back and forth through the recent past to show how they fell in love (act two, scenes 1–4).
• Past and present can exist at the same time. Example: while Matilde tells Lane and Virginia about a fight yesterday between Charles and Ana, we see it happening now on Ana’s balcony.
• Two distinct physical locations can merge. Example: as Charles hikes through Alaska in search of a yew tree, it snows in Lane’s living room (act two, scene 10).
• Ordinary objects can gain mystical qualities. Example: when Matilde and Ana toss apples off of a balcony into the sea, they land miles away in Lane’s living room (act two, scene 6). Later, when Ana hurls a spice jar into the sea, a cloud of yellow spice descends upon the living room (act two, scene 7).
• A character can die from hearing a perfect joke. Example: Matilde uses the perfect joke to kill Ana, who literally dies laughing (act two, scene 13).
ANALYZING YOUR STORY
Review how the world of your story works.
IF THE WORLD IS REALISTIC . . .
Its physical operating rules have been set by nature. However, you may need to flesh out specific rules for any natural phenomenon that is rare or complicated.
• Is additional research necessary to understand any specific character traits or story developments? If so, what topics do you need to address?
• If technical information is important to the story, how much of it does the audience really need to know in order to understand and believe story events?
• Where in the script is this technical information stated, who tells it to whom, and what is the “here and now” dramatic reason for doing so? Can any of this information be integrated more seamlessly into the dramatic action? If so, how?
• Have you included all of the technical facts needed for the audience to understand story events? If not, what information is missing and how can you integrate it into the script?
• Can any technical information be condensed or removed without significantly weakening the story?
IF THE WORLD IS NONREALISTIC . . .
Think about how the world of the story differs from the real world.
• What special rules, if any, enable characters to do things they would not normally be able to do in the real world? State each rule and what it allows.
• What special rules, if any, limit or prevent characters from doing things they would normally be able to do in the real world? State each rule and the limits it imposes.
• Do any of these special rules apply to some characters but not to others? If so, whom do these rules affect, whom don’t they affect, and why?
• What special operating rules, if any, govern time, space, and physical phenomena? State each rule and what it encompasses.
• When and how is each special operating rule introduced in the story? Is the rule established early enough for the audience to accept it as credible?
• Are there any special rules that some characters know and others don’t? If so, what is the reason for these differences?
• Are there any special operating rules that come into effect only after the story begins? If so, what empowers these rules and when does this happen?
• Are there any special operating rules that change or end during the story? If so, what causes this development?
• Do any special rules have roots in the backstory that need to be revealed? If so, what happened in the past and how much of this backstory does the audience need to know?
• How do most characters in the world of the story view its special rules?
• Do these special rules affect who has physical, social, or political power over others? If so, how?
• Would the story work better if the rules of the game were different? If so, what rules would you add, change, or eliminate and how would that affect the story?
FRAMEWORK
A play is made up of acts and scenes. These basic divisions in the dramatic action, or lack of them, create a framework that gives the story a certain size and shape. There is no formula for how many acts or scenes a play should have or how long each should be. The framework depends on the complexity of its characters, plot, and theme.
Act. An act is a major unit of action triggered by a turning-point experience, positive or negative, and driven by the need of one or more characters to accomplish something important as a result of what happened. The ensuing activity triggers a sequence of events that may unfold in any number of settings over any period of time and leads through rising conflict to a greater turning point, or reversal, that either launches a new act or ends the story. In a play with more than one act, each act has a separate focus, as in Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, where act titles suggest clearly different stages of the story: “One Act: Fun and Games,” “Act Two: Walpurgisnacht,” and “Act Three: The Exorcism.”
Scene. A scene is a division of an act driven by one character’s need to achieve an immediate objective in spite of obstacles that stand in the way. Each scene typically unfolds in one setting in real time and adds up to one main event that changes the world of the story in either a good or bad way.
French scene. Some scenes divide into French scenes, which are demarcated by the entrance or exit of an important character. Each time someone comes or goes, a different combination of characters forms onstage and something new happens. Ideally, each French scene contributes in an essential way to the scenic event.
■ DOUBT: A PARABLE
Act structure
Doubt unfolds in one act with a run time of about ninety minutes. This framework supports a single story line that focuses on Sister Aloysius’s attempts to expose and expel Father Flynn, whom she suspects of child abuse. During the play, there is no reversal big enough to change the forward direction of the quest and thus trigger a second act focused on a different topic or activity. The steps of the journey always reflect the same quest, even when Aloysius is not onstage. In scene 7, for example, when Flynn tries to convince James of his innocence, his primary tactic is to try to turn her against Aloysius, who remains the focal point of activity.
Scene structure
The one act divides into nine scenes. Each scene break occurs because a change of place and/or time is needed. In scene 2, for example, Aloysius and James discuss the sermon Flynn delivered in scene 1. The scene break is necessary so that the nuns can talk alone outside of church after they have had time to ponder Flynn’s words.
French scenes. Two scenes divide into French scenes so that different combinations of characters can appear within the same setting and timeframe. In scene 5, for example, Aloysius confronts Flynn about his relationship with Donald Muller, an eighth grader who may have had wine on his breath after visiting the rectory. This event breaks down into four French scenes:
• A (Aloysius). Alone on the phone, Aloysius asks the caretaker, Mr. McGinn, to remove from the church courtyard a fallen tree limb that caused the nearly blind Sister Veronica to trip and fall. This unit of action portrays Aloysius as a problem solver and introduces McGinn, an offstage character who will play a key role in the backstory. We also learn that a tree limb has fallen, a fact that will soon explain why Sister James is late f
or today’s meeting: she couldn’t cross the courtyard as usual to get here.
• B (Aloysius, Flynn). Flynn arrives for the meeting but has to wait outside the office door since no third party is yet present. He questions Aloysius about Sister Veronica’s accident. Worried that the elderly nun might be sent away for being infirm, Aloysius defends her. This unit shows her and Flynn alone for the first time, introduces the third-party rule, and portrays Aloysius as who one protects those who cannot protect themselves.
• C (Aloysius, Flynn, James). James arrives, Flynn enters the office with her, and the meeting begins. After being appalled by Flynn’s personal habits, such as his use of a ballpoint pen, Aloysius clashes with him over music choices for the Christmas pageant. The tension leads to the real subject: Flynn’s relationship with Donald. The priest denies any wrongdoing and storms out. This unit establishes Aloysius and Flynn as overt adversaries and reveals key traits about all three characters.
• D (Aloysius, James). After Flynn leaves, James defends him and rebels briefly against her superior, but Aloysius is now determined to bring Flynn down. She calls Donald’s mother and asks her to come in for a talk. This unit shows that Aloysius’s campaign against Flynn will escalate and foreshadows trouble ahead, including Mrs. Muller’s visit to the school.
■ TOPDOG/UNDERDOG
Act structure
The story has a run time of about two hours and fifteen minutes. While the term “act” is not used in the script, the story divides into two major units of action and is thus the equivalent of a two-act play. The first unit (scenes 1–4) focuses on the pursuit of dreams. For Booth, this means winning back his ex-girlfriend Grace by becoming a rich card hustler. For Lincoln, it means keeping his job as an Abraham Lincoln impersonator by improving his performance.
The second unit of action (scenes 5–6) focuses on what happens when dreams are deferred. After Grace stands him up for dinner, Booth is forced to acknowledge that he will never win her back. Meanwhile Lincoln loses his job due to cutbacks. The loss of their dreams gradually pits the brothers against each other and leads to their final showdown.
The two “acts” are separated by a reversal at the end of scene 4, when Lincoln succumbs to the temptation of the cards. With this, his dream of an honest life begins to fade. He has taken the first step on a path that will lead ultimately to his own death at his brother’s hands.
Scene structure
The play divides into six scenes. Since the action takes place in one location—the rooming-house room that the brothers share—scene breaks are due to time shifts only. The purpose of these shifts is to allow certain offstage events to occur. As scene 2 ends, for example, Booth is leaving for a date with Grace. Scene 3 begins later that night as he returns from the date with tales of “Amazing Grace” and “an evening to remember.”
French scenes. Since the play has only two onstage characters, French scenes are created by showing one brother home alone before the other arrives or after the other leaves. This occurs in four scenes. In scene 1, for example, Booth tries to entice Lincoln to be his partner in a three-card monte scam, but Lincoln declines. The scene breaks down into two French scenes:
• A (Booth). Booth alone practices dealing three-card monte. Though he’s not good at it, he imagines himself easily winning $500 from a sucker on the street. This unit of action introduces Booth and shows his interest in card hustling as well as lack of talent for it, factors that will soon motivate him to enlist his brother’s help.
• B (Booth, Lincoln). Booth nearly shoots Lincoln when he arrives home from work in his Abraham Lincoln regalia. After a takeout meal, including a power struggle over who gets which dish, Booth reveals his scheme to win back Grace. The proposal is a three-card monte scam with Lincoln as the dealer and Booth as his accomplice. Lincoln has sworn off the cards, however, and turns him down. Booth threatens to evict him, but the evening ends peacefully after Lincoln sings about the bad luck in his life. This unit introduces Lincoln, reveals key differences between the brothers, rekindles their sibling rivalry—the central conflict of the play—and foreshadows the violent ending.
■ THE CLEAN HOUSE
Act structure
The play unfolds in two acts with a run time of about two hours. Act one presents the three protagonists: Lane, Matilde, and Virginia. Most of the action occurs in Lane’s living room, but we sometimes leave it to enter a character’s imagination. The focus of this act is on physical cleaning, such as polishing silver and doing laundry. The characters meanwhile journey toward emotional messiness, with Lane’s marriage failing, her relationship with Virginia becoming strained, and her relationship with Matilde being severed.
Act two adds Lane’s husband, Charles, and his new soul mate, Ana, to the mix. The action is primarily divided between Lane’s living room and Ana’s balcony at the sea, but also includes glimpses of Charles and Ana at the hospital, Charles in Alaska, and Matilde’s imagination. The focus of this act is on spiritual cleaning. As they grapple with personal shortcomings and sins of the past, the characters now journey toward emotional healing, with most finding solutions for the problems that beset them in act one.
The acts are separated by a reversal that begins in act one, scene 13, where Lane reveals that her husband has been unfaithful, finds out that it is Virginia, not Matilde, who has been cleaning her house, and fires Matilde. The reversal is completed in the next scene with the offstage arrival of Charles and Ana at the front door.
As a result of this reversal, the lives of all five characters will be different in act two. Lane will have to let go of her illusion of having a perfect life and acknowledge that her relationship with her husband has been lacking. Matilde will have to look for a new job and will consequently become Ana’s part-time housekeeper and friend. Virginia will rise above her cleaning obsession to become a more active participant in her sister’s life. Charles and Ana will make their relationship public and begin to live openly as lovers.
Scene structure
Each act divides into fourteen scenes, for a total of twenty-eight. Scene breaks occur so that we can move between the interior worlds of the characters and the exterior settings of the story, such as Lane’s living room and Ana’s balcony. A few scene breaks occur to allow a passage of time, such as the break in act one between scenes 7 and 8. It is during this break that Virginia cleans Lane’s house for the first time so that Lane can return home from work in the next scene and believe that Matilde is doing her job again.
French scenes. To accommodate the active comings and goings of five characters, several scenes divide into French scenes. In act one, scene 13, for example, Lane’s life falls apart, Virginia’s secret cleaning is exposed, and Matilde gets fired. The scene breaks down into four French scenes:
• A (Virginia, Matilde). While sorting laundry, Virginia comes across a pair of women’s underwear that does not belong to Lane. This unit of action foreshadows the revelation of Charles’s infidelity and strengthens the conspiratorial friendship between Matilde and Virginia.
• B (Virginia, Matilde, Lane). Lane returns home from work early and is surprised to find Virginia here. Lane says she is going to shoot herself and goes into the kitchen. This unit foreshadows our discovery that Lane has had bad news, raises concerns about her mental health, and escalates the tension in the house.
• C (Virginia, Matilde). Anxious about the underwear in the laundry and her sister’s strange announcement, Virginia impulsively rearranges objects on the coffee table. This unit reinforces Virginia’s compulsive personality and paves the way for Lane’s discovery in the next French scene of the secret pact between Virginia and Matilde.
• D (Virginia, Matilde, Lane). Lane returns with a bleeding wrist, claiming that she cut herself accidentally, and reveals that Charles is in love with a patient. Noticing the rearranged objects on the coffee table, Lane figures out that Virginia has been cleaning her house. The sisters fight, and Lane fires Matilde. This unit introduces a major turning po
int for all three women, reveals the depth of Lane’s distress and denial, escalates the conflict between her and the other women, and opens the door to the new territory of act two.
ANALYZING YOUR STORY
A dramatic story may unfold in one act, two acts, or more, divided into any number of scenes.
FOR ANY PLAY . . .
• Think about the current framework. How many acts does it include? How many scenes?
• What is the focus—the main topic or activity—of each act?
• What is the turning point that triggers each act?
• Think about the complexity of your characters and the magnitude of the dramatic journey. Do you have the right number of acts for the story you want to tell? If not, what changes will you make?
• Does each scene center on a main event that changes the world of the characters and moves the dramatic journey forward?
• Too many scenes can make the dramatic action feel choppy. Look at how your play breaks into scenes. How necessary is each break? Can any scenes be combined or eliminated?
• If a scene divides into French scenes, what is the event in each one? How necessary is this smaller event to the whole scene and to the play?
• What is your play’s estimated run time? How does this match the substance and scope of the story? If the play feels too long or too short, what changes will you make?
FOR A PLAY WITH MORE THAN ONE ACT . . .
• Ideally, the act break occurs after a major turning point, or reversal, in the story. Where in your script is the act break now?
• Is this the best place for the act break? If so, why? If not, what would work better?
• In general, how does the second act differ from the first? How does the third act, if there is one, differ from the second, and so on?
