by Judy Yung
All Chinatown has come to agree that it was the most magnificent, heartwarming and spontaneous spectacle ever given in this go-year community.... Chinatownians had always known the sympathy and generosity of the American people toward the people of China. But whereas before they had only read or been told of it, on the night of June 17 they saw it-saw it in the faces of Zoo,ooo Americans as they milled into Chinatown, as they vied on purchasing "Humanity" badges, and as they literally poured money into rice bowls placed everywhere for that purpose. The cause of this active sympathy was very pithily expressed in four Chinese characters written on a strip of rice paper pasted in front of a store which read: "America Believes in Righteousness."55
So great was the success of San Francisco's first Rice Bowl party that the community decided to expand the second one to three days in 1940, and the third one to four days in 1941. These parties were even more spectacular, with the addition of fireworks that reproduced historical Chinese and American scenes, floats that blended Chinese history and mythology, an auction of donated Chinese merchandise-tea, jewelry, and art goods-that lasted for hours and brought in thousands of dollars, and a new dragon, constructed by Chinese artisans from the International Exposition at Treasure Island. The second Rice Bowl party brought in $87,000, while the third reaped $93,000.56
The Rice Bowl parties would not have been as successful without the active participation of women in the origin, planning, and implementation of the event. Where Chinese women particularly stood out was in their role carrying the Chinese flag in the parades. Measuring seventyfive feet long and forty-five feet wide, the flag weighed over three hundred pounds and required one hundred women to hold it aloft. As the women marched through the streets, coins and bills were thrown into the outstretched flag. So heavy did the flag become that each parade had to be stopped at least three times for the flag to be emptied.57 This scene of a hundred proud women-young and old, all wearing cheong sum, China's national dress-was repeated throughout the country every time there was a parade to raise funds or commemorate the Humiliation Days when Japan attacked China. Their high visibility as flag carriers in these parades could be said to symbolize the merging of nationalism with feminism: the move of Chinese American women from the domestic into the public arena on behalf of the war effort.
Women proudly carrying the Chinese flag through the streets of Chinatown to raise money for the war effort in China. (Harry Jew photo)
PICKET DUTY
The other dramatic image of Chinese women during the war years is of picketers protesting the shipping of scrap iron to Japan. Organized by the Chinese Workers Mutual Aid Association and as reported by Lim P. Lee in the Chinese Digest, a mass protest in San Francisco was set for r r A.M. on December 16, 19 3 8. By word of mouth, people began gathering for picket duty at io:3o at the corner of Stockton and Clay Streets. By "zero hour," more than two hundred volunteers had arrived; they were transported, singing, shouting, and cheering, to Pier 45, where the S.S. Spyros, a ship owned by Japan's Mitsui Company, was docked. There they were joined by three hundred sympathetic Greeks, Jews, and other European Americans. As the word spread, Chinatown restaurants and grocery stores did their part by providing free drinks and food-roast pig, sandwiches, pork buns, oranges to the picketers and longshoremen for the duration of the demonstra- tion.58
The picket line comprised many different factions, including the political right and left, Christian and secular groups, all classes and ages. One reporter described the scene thus:
Despite the pouring rain and the muddy roads, both men and women assembled on time, the most enthusiastic participants coming from the Chinese YWCA, Chick Char Musical Club, United Protestants Association, Presbyterian Mission Home, and the Kin Kuo Chinese School. Ten Chinese women who came all the way from Stockton further aroused the spirit of the occasion. As the men and women marched in a circle in the pouring rain, the red ink on their signs ran and their faces became wet with raindrops so that it appeared as if they were splattered with blood and tears.... Joining the picket line was a number of elderly women, hobbling on feet once bound. Old men, hunched and bald, marched alongside the young and strong. The scene was enough to move one to tears.59
The picketers' cries of "Longshoremen, be with us! Longshoremen, be with us!" and their picket signs, "Stop U.S. scrap iron to Japan! Prevent murder of Chinese women and children!" succeeded in gaining the sympathy and support of the longshoremen who were responsible for loading the S.S. Spyros with scrap metal bound for Japan. In political solidarity, the majority of the longshoremen refused to cross the picket line upon their return from lunch break. By the fourth day of the protest, with Chinese American supporters pouring in from nearby towns, the picket line had grown to five thousand strong and now included the S.S. Beckenham, an English freighter docked at the same pier. A vote by the full membership of the International Longshoremen and Warehousemen's Union (ILWU) resulted in "ioo percent opposed to passing the picket line," despite threats of a coastwide lockout of all longshoremen by the Waterfront Employers Association. For five days the Spyros lay quiet. After negotiations between the ILWU and CWRA, the protest was finally called off on December zo with the understanding that the union would organize a coastwide conference to promote an embargo on all materials to Japan. Not wanting to hurt commercial business in San Francisco further, and considering their goal of publicizing the need for an embargo against Japan accomplished, the Chinese picketers withdrew. They marched past the longshoremen's headquarters to express their appreciation and then through downtown San Francisco and back to Chinatown, singing China's song of resistance, "Chi Lai (Arise)" or "March of the Volunteers." True to their word, organized labor, in cooperation with American Friends of China, the Church Federation, and CWRA, spearheaded an embargo petition campaign and organized mass meetings in January and February to launch a national embargo movement. Chinese Americans continued to press for an embargo until 1941, when Congress finally authorized President Roosevelt to prohibit the sales of arms to Japan.60 In this effort, women played a major role by assuming picket duty and lobbying Congress.
Lai Yee Guey How with son Art (left) and Nellie Tom Quock (right) lead the picket line against sending scrap iron to Japan. (Courtesy of Lorena How)
FUND-RAISING AND RED CROSS WORK
Two areas that were considered the domain of women in the war effort were direct solicitation of money and Red Cross work. Because men found asking for donations distasteful, they pushed the task onto women, whom they said people in the community found more difficult to refuse. The CWRA made it a point to organize women's brigades whenever it sponsored a fund-raising campaign.61 During the CWRA's second relief campaign in 1937, for example, fifty-four women made up six of the twelve brigades responsible for canvassing the San Francisco Bay Area for contributions. By the fifth day of the campaign, CSYPre- ported that one-quarter of the $6oo,ooo goal had been met, and one of the women's brigades was praised for bringing in the top amount of $3,8oo on that day.62 This was no mean feat, considering the depressed times and the many noteworthy causes that competed for donations in the community, including victims of natural disasters in China; schools, hospitals, and orphanages in China; the Community Chest; Chinese Hospital; Chinese schools; churches and community organizations such as the YWCA, YMCA, and Square and Circle Club; Mei Lun Yuen orphanage; and Chinese deportees from Cuba.63
Throughout the war years, Chinese women from various walks of life also assumed the traditional female tasks of Red Cross work. Soon after the 9-18 and i - z 8 incidents, women volunteers gathered at the Chinese YWCA, Chinese Hospital, Baptist Church, and Presbyterian Mission Home to prepare bandages and medical supplies for China's battle- fronts.64 As the war intensified and the community was bombarded with reports of wounded soldiers and civilians, women increased their volunteer Red Cross activities. During the summer months of 1937, for example, garment workers in Chinatown made, on their own time, six thousand flannel jackets of double construction for civilians in the
war zones. In December of that same year, they volunteered to sew ten thousand inner garments for wounded soldiers.65 Many Chinese American women also put in regular hours preparing supplies for refugee relief at the Chinese American Citizens Alliance and at the San Francisco branch of the American Red Cross.66
Among the most active in Red Cross work was none other than Dr. Margaret Chung. She had volunteered for medical service at the front lines but had been dissuaded by both the Chinese and American governments. "They felt I could do more good raising funds for medical supplies here in this country," she told radio audiences. "Today women and children are suffering in China-dying without even a chance to be saved. There is a great need for the most elementary sort of medical supplies. And I have made the raising of a medical fund my work for the present."67 A charismatic figure, Dr. Chung took it upon herself to lecture all over the country on behalf of the war effort in China and to use her social connections in show business to sponsor benefit performances in local theaters outside Chinatown. One such benefit that featured both Chinese and American stars raised enough money to send $1,700 worth of drugs, medical supplies, and vaccines to China via the National Women's Relief Association in Hong Kong.68 With foresight she worked with the American Red Cross to establish a Disaster Relief Station in the basement of Grace Cathedral in the Nob Hill district in 1939. "Some people do not realize how efficiently and farsightedly the American Red Cross works, but when the Japanese struck on December 7, 1941, we worked feverishly and by io:oo that night huge packing cases were loaded upon the decks of the U.S.S. Mariposa and were sent away out to Pearl Harbor," she wrote years later. For her "meritorious personal service performed in behalf of the nation, her Armed Services, and suffering humanity in the Second World War," Dr. Chung received a special citation from the American Red Cross.69
RECEPTIONS FOR WAR HEROES
Women's war work also included hosting receptions for Chinese dignitaries and war heroes when they came through San Francisco. Particularly notable were the large welcoming receptions that Chinese women hosted for female role models such as the war hero Yang Hueimei, the aviator Lee Ya Ching, Madame Chiang Kai-shek, and United Nations delegate Wu Yifang. Here were four Chinese women held in high regard by their countrymen and countrywomen for contributions that broke with traditional gender roles. Meeting and hearing them speak on the role of women in the war not only boosted nationalist fervor but also inspired feminist pride among Chinese American women.
Yang Hueimei, famous for carrying the Chinese flag and supplies across enemy lines during a decisive battle in Shanghai, was given a hero's welcome when she came to San Francisco in 1938, after attending the Second International Youth and Peace Conference in New York. CSYP reported that among the seventy-eight carloads of people who greeted her at the pier were representatives from five women's groups, part of CWRA's welcoming committee.70 "She was adored by all the inhabitants of Chinatown," recalled Jane Kwong Lee. "And when she made an appearance at the Chinese YWCA auditorium, the hall was jammed."71 Her speech was inspiring:
I thank you for the title of "hero," but I am a mere citizen. In this time of national crisis, I am but fulfilling my duty. The loss of Canton recently has caused overseas Chinese much pain and grief, but we must not despair.... The enemy's airplanes are indeed powerful, but our blood and flesh are even more powerful. We must use our blood and flesh to wash away our country's humiliation and build a new China. Your contributions as overseas Chinese are important.... We must unite and fight to the end, for the final victory will be ours.72
Many more women converged on Oakland Airport on April z6, 1939, to welcome Lee Ya Ching as she piloted her plane in from San Diego. Trained in Geneva, Switzerland, and Oakland, China's foremost female aviator had once starred in movies and worked as a copilot for Southwestern Airlines in China. Prior to returning to the United States on a national tour to solicit aid for war relief, she taught aviation in Hong Kong, piloted a government plane around China to interest young men in aviation, and organized nursing schools and refugee camps in Shang- hai.75 Like the aviator Katherine Cheung, who had in 1936 won the admiration of the Chinese community with her daring acrobatic skills and commitment to serve China through aviation, Lee Ya Ching impressed audiences with her aerial displays and stirring speeches on women's role in the War of Resistance:
There might have been a time when it was all right for women to let their men go out and defend them and their homes. But men can't defend women and homes from bombs out of the sky. Since we risk as much by doing nothing, we prefer to become soldiers and fight for our country.74
As one reporter remarked, "She not only brings glory to China's Air Force but she does likewise for all Chinese women."75
Every Chinese woman was thrilled about Madame Chiang's visit to San Francisco in March 1943 as part of a nationwide speaking tour to foster support for China. They were proud of the intelligent and dignified manner in which she had represented China to Congress and the rest of America, and they were also inspired by her personal charisma and fearless leadership as China's first lady and foremost ambassador of goodwill. Two years before, the various women's organizations involved in war work had joined efforts to send her a scroll of appreciation for her "service to China and the Chinese people."76 During this six-day visit in San Francisco, however, they rolled out the red carpet for her. They assisted the CWRA in arranging all the particulars, greeted her at the port when she arrived, marched in the grand parades held in her honor, and attended all her public appearances and speeches.77 In recognition of their contributions to the war effort, Madame Chiang held a private audience with representatives of the six key women's organizations at the Palace Hotel before she left for Los Angeles, at which time she thanked them for the warm reception she had received in San Francisco and reminded them to uphold the principles of the New Life Movement in their daily lives. Only in this way, she said, would racial discrimination against the Chinese be lessened. She further stressed women's important role in teaching their children Chinese language and culture, grooming their daughters for the betterment of family and community life, and promoting goodwill among Westerners.78
The fact that the Chinese government chose to send Dr. Wu Yifang, principal of Ginling Women's College and the only woman among nine delegates, to represent China at the founding meeting of the United Nations was a source of pride for the Chinese American community, especially since Russia, known for its strong stance on gender equality, had sent only men.79 The reception held in Dr. Wu's honor at the Chinese YWCA in 1945 was as much a tribute to her as a celebration of the enhanced status of Chinese women due to their contributions in war work. As Dr. Wu had said over a decade before, "Progress of a nation is relatively dependent upon the progress of its women. China is going through a transition that is not yet completed, but one that eventually will mean a new China."10 Six women, representing each of the six key Chinese women's organizations, walked in with Dr. Wu at the beginning of the program and sat with her on stage. In her speech that day, Dr. Wu acknowledged "the immense contributions that women have made to the War of Resistance and now to the peace effort after the war." Taking note of how smoothly the program went, one reporter commented, "This well-organized event is indeed a good example of the ability of our women's groups to work together."al
In sum, as with previous national crises in China, the War of Resistance called for the contribution of every man and woman not only in China but also overseas. Women in China, in shouldering guns at the battlefront, administering to the wounded, devoting themselves to wartime propaganda, contributing to production, and maintaining their homes and neighborhoods, more than proved their mettle. The result, the aviator Lee Ya Ching pointed out, was that "Chinese women who wouldn't have broken from tradition for another century perhaps are thinking and acting for themselves, in the great national emergency... Naturally, you can't liberate a mind and then expect it to go back behind deadening prison walls."82 Likewise, Chinese women in the United States wer
e moved to action, participating in many new avenues of po litical involvement, although still in gender-specific ways and in subordinate roles to men. In the process, they too proved their worth and elevated their status in the community. As one reporter noted on the occasion of Women's Day in 1945:
At the welcoming reception for Dr. Wu Yifang. From left to right: Mickey Fong Lee, Chinese YWCA; Mrs. Kwock Chang Lien, Women's Patriotic Club; Mrs. Jue Jun Yew, New Life Association; Mrs. Chan Gum, Women's Council; Nellie Tom Quock, reception chair; Dr. Wu Yifang; May Chan, Fidelis Coteri; Jessie Dong, Square and Circle Club; and Jane Kwong Lee, translator. (Courtesy of Chinese YWCA, San Francisco)
After the War of Resistance started, because of the efforts of overseas Chinese in national salvation work, the overseas Chinese women's movement has taken off with remarkable speed. Women's organizations have formed and earned good marks for their fundraising and war relief work. In addition, women's thinking has progressed. They have joined the men in national salvation work. They understand that only by liberating the people can the women's liberation movement have a bright future.83
America's entry into the war after the bombing of Pearl Harbor would give Chinese women further cause to express their patriotism and find places for themselves in the public arena; only this time they would be in step with mainstream society.
