by Mark Adams
The mule whisperers: Julian (with his ever-present bag of coca leaves), Mateo and Juvenal, a living legend of Peruvian exploration. (Courtesy of the author)
Justo prepares dinner at Valentin’s farm in the clouds. (Courtesy of the author)
One section of the very vertical trail to Choquequirao, a six-mile distance that requires two grueling days of walking to cross. (Courtesy of the author)
Choquequirao, often called Machu Picchu’s sister site, was the original candidate for Lost City of the Incas. (Courtesy of the author)
Only one quarter of Choquequirao’s ruins have been excavated; these terraces adorned with llamas were discovered in 2005. (Courtesy of the author)
Justo on the deserted stone path that runs from Choquequirao to Vitcos. John Leivers called it “one of the finest stretches of Inca trail in all of Peru.” (Courtesy of the author)
One of the clues that aided Bingham in his search for the Lost City of the Incas was a sacred carved boulder, known as the White Rock. He snapped this photo in 1911. (From Inca Land)
The White Rock’s backside, as seen today. (Courtesy of John Leivers)
An optical illusion built into the central doorway at the palace of Vitcos (as photographed by Bingham in 1911 and as seen today, occupied by John Leivers) seem to narrow as one enters from either direction. (Archival photo from Inca Land; other courtesy of the author)
The hand-carved welcome sign at Espiritu Pampa, nailed to a matapalo strangler-fig tree. (Courtesy of the author)
Espiritu Pampa was once capital of the Inca empire-in-exile; today machete-wielding teenagers are employed to prevent the jungle from once again swallowing the ruins. (Courtesy of the author)
Government archaeologists at Espiritu Pampa display newly excavated Inca artifacts. (Courtesy of the author)
The overgrown ruins of Machu Picchu were inhabited by farmers when Bingham first saw them. (© H.L. Tucker/National Geographic Society/Corbis)
Though Bingham made several important discoveries on his wildly successful 1911 expedition, press reports in the United States zeroed in on the mist-shrouded mountaintop citadel the explorer had found. (The New York Times, December 22, 1911)
National Geographic’s ambitious young editor Gilbert Grosvenor saw potential in the story of Machu Picchu; his magazine made stars of both Bingham and his discovery. (Library of Congress)
The least convenient but cheapest way to reach Machu Picchu is to arrive via the “backdoor” route atop train tracks. The sign to John’s left reads DANGER: DO NOT WALK ON TOP OF RAILS. (Courtesy of the author)
The railway to Machu Picchu follows the same route Bingham followed through the Urubamba Valley in 1911. (From Inca Land)
Hidden on a hillside below Machu Picchu is a giant carved intihuatana, which aligns perfectly with the angle of the sunrise for a few days each year. (Courtesy of the author)
The Torreon at Machu Picchu, a sun temple where a mysterious beam of light shines through a window on the June solstice. (Courtesy of the author)
The Torreon sits atop the Royal Mausoleum, a cave lined with surrealistic masonry; Bingham theorized that this was the birthplace of the Inca civilization. (Courtesy of the author)
The two as photographed by Bingham. (From Inca Land)
The abstract Intihuatana stone sits at the highest point within the main ruins of Machu Picchu. Its shape mirrors the holy peak of Huayna Picchu, which lies due north of the stone; other important peaks stand directly to the south, east and west. (Courtesy of the author)
Bingham surmised that the east-facing Temple of the Three Windows was the key to solving the mystery of Machu Picchu’s origins. (Courtesy of the author)
Bingham carefully cultivated his swashbuckler image and frequently had himself photographed in dashing poses, such as this one at Espiritu Pampa. (Yale Peruvian Expedition Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University)
Bingham’s best-known book, Lost City of the Incas, inspired the 1954 B-movie Secret of the Incas, a major influence on Raiders of the Lost Ark. (Courtesy of the author)
Newly unearthed film production memos indicate that the connection between Bingham and Indiana Jones is closer than previously known. (© Sunset Boulevard/Corbis)
Decades after his death, Bingham made headlines again in 2008 when Peru’s former first lady Eliane Karp-Toledo (shown with her husband, President Alejandro Toledo) prodded Peru to sue Yale University for the return of artifacts Bingham had taken from Machu Picchu. (© Paolo Aguilar/EFE/Corbis)
The same year, Alaskan researcher Paolo Greer published an article that raised new doubts about Bingham’s status as the discoverer of Machu Picchu. (Courtesy of Paolo Greer)
A section of the hand-drawn map that led Greer on a twenty-year odyssey. (Courtesy of Paolo Greer)
Bingham located the Inca Trail during his final attempt to prove his Lost City theory. The agricultural settlement of Patallacta, near the trail’s start, fed multitudes at Machu Picchu. (Courtesy of the author)
The author takes a break with his Inca Trail guide, Efrain Valles. One of these men has walked the trail three hundred times. (Courtesy of John Leivers)
John Leivers approaches the Sun Gate, the pilgrim’s entrance to Machu Picchu. (Courtesy of the author)
On the morning of the June solstice, a beam of sunlight shoots down this corridor in the ruins of Llactapata. A gold reflector at its end may have blasted the light back across the valley to Machu Picchu. (Courtesy of John Leivers)
The same day, the sun can be seen from Machu Picchu rising directly over the top of Cerro San Gabriel. (Courtesy of the author)
Mystically inclined visitors congregate at Machu Picchu for the solstice. (Courtesy of the author)
Machu Picchu today. The Torreon, scrubbed to its original brilliant white, can be seen in the bottom right corner. The Intihuatana stone is half way up on the left. The Sacred Plaza, including the Principal Temple and the Temple of the Three Windows, is at the base of the small terraced hill on which the Intihuatana stone sits. (Courtesy of the author)
Acknowledgments
The Incas had a three-pronged Golden Rule, still widely repeated in the Andes: ama sua, ama llula, ama cheklla. Translated, it means “do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy.” There’s not much I can do about my un-Bingham-like laziness at this point in my life—the only way I’m ever going back to Choquequirao is in a helicopter—but I would be lying if I did not admit to stealing hours of valuable time from some very busy people while writing this book. I am deeply indebted to each of them.
My foremost gratitude is to John Leivers, who not only dragged my sorry behind through much of Peru but subsequently answered hundreds of questions, always cheerfully, patiently and in minute detail. Mike Benoist, Cliff Ransom and Steve Byers, all adventurous types, gave invaluable comments on an early draft. The always blunt Gillian Fassel prevented me from indulging my worst authorial instincts, in the nicest way possible. Ryan Bradley ventured into the jungles of Beverly Hills and elsewhere to track down rumors and factoids, then returned to civilization to give insightful notes. The librarians at Yale’s Sterling Memorial Library and The New York Public Library (Jay Barksdale in particular) were extremely kind and helpful. My brother Jason Adams, as always, helped me get to the finish line. Paolo Greer delved repeatedly into his personal archives to answer even the most obscure questions I had about Machu Picchu. Dan Ferrara, who hired me at Outside magazine in 1992, is still cleaning up my inelegant transitions. Sophy Truslow, Charlie Jolie and Adam Zarkov played uncredited roles in getting this story started. Others who provided support above and beyond the call of duty in New York were Sarah Adams, Caroline Hirsch, Veronica Francis, Mary Anne Potts, Adam Sachs, Peter Zaremba, John Hodgman, Marlon Salazar, L
eonor Krawczyk, Melanie James of the sublime General Society Library and pretty much everyone associated with the late, lamented National Geographic Adventure Magazine—in particular the preposterously loyal John Rasmus.
Fred and Aura Truslow housed and fed me at their homes in both Washington, D.C., and Lima. The extended Kahatt-Navarrete family—Hilda, Julia, Karim, Sharif and Marta—made me feel welcome during Lima’s gloomiest season. (Rocio Lockett and Patrick Manning deserve honorable sunshine mentions.) Nati Huamani put up with my silly inquiries while she cooked dinner for my sons. In Ollantaytambo, Vince and Nancy Lee not only answered my questions but bought me a very nice dinner on their anniversary. Others who provided personal or professional kindnesses big and small included Roberto Samanez, Johan Reinhard, Roxana Abril, Eliane Karp-Toledo, Barry Walker, Alex Chepstow-Lusty, Tati von Kaupp, Robert von Kaupp, Peter Frost, Rosa Cobos, Paul Cripps and the staff of Amazonas Explorer, and the very nice people who run the Hostal San Isidro Labrador, Carlo and Estela in particular. Also, an emphatic mil gracias to those who made sure I never lost my way (or my appetite) on the trail: Efrain Valles, Edgar Gudiel, Mateo Gallegos, Julián Bolaños, Juvenal Cobos and Justo Suchli.
My agent, Daniel Greenberg, reworked a half-baked book idea about Machu Picchu into something that people might actually want to read. Brian Tart at Dutton books seemed to understand immediately what I had in mind, probably even better than I did. He and Jessica Horvath helped steer an often wayward narrative back toward the proper path. David Cain drew the beautiful maps, based in part on earlier maps drawn by Bingham, the INC, Kenneth Wright, Peter Frost, Johan Reinhard and John Gilkes.
My greatest debt in all things is to my wife, Aurita, without whom this book could not have been written for about a thousand different reasons. And to my three beloved sons, who have never lied, cheated or betrayed the least sign of laziness—Alex, Lucas and Magnus—I can offer only one hard-earned nugget of wisdom in return for the joy you bring me every day: when hiking downhill, always wear two pairs of socks.
Glossary
These brief descriptions may be useful when you’re trying to remember the difference between Huayna Capac (an emperor), Huayna Picchu (the peak at the north end of Machu Picchu) and Huayna Pucará (an Inca fort). For the most difficult names—almost all of them Quechua—I’ve included an approximate pronunciation as well.
Almagro, Diego de: One of Francisco Pizarro’s two original partners in a business syndicate formed to exploit the riches many Spaniards believed (correctly) to exist in Peru. Embittered by his small share of Inca plunder, Almagro later started a war against the Pizarros, lost, and was executed.
Antisuyu: (An-tee-SOO-yoo) The easternmost and most tropical of the four quarters of the Inca empire. Its lands encompassed Machu Picchu and part of the Amazon basin.
Apu: (Ah-POO) A holy mountain, in traditional Andean belief. Often the recipient of religious sacrifices and ceremonies.
Apurimac River: (Ah-POO-ree-mack) Whitewater river that flows below Choquequirao.
Atahualpa: (Ah-tah-WAHL-pah) Inca emperor at the time of Pizarro’s conquest of Peru. He had recently defeated his half brother Huascar in a civil war that devastated the empire; his preoccupation with this victory may have led him to underestimate Pizarro’s threat. When captured by the Spaniards, Atahualpa paid an enormous ransom for his freedom, but was assassinated.
Ausangate: (Ow-san-GAH-tay) An apu that overlooks the Incas’ holy city and capital of Cusco. One of the two most sacred mountains in Inca cosmology, along with Salcantay.
Berns, Augusto: Nineteenth-century German prospector, whose papers—located by the researcher Paolo Greer—suggest that he may have been looting Machu Picchu’s artifacts long before Hiram Bingham arrived.
Bingham, Hiram: American explorer who located Machu Picchu, Vitcos and Espritu Pampa as the leader of the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition.
Cachora: (Cah-CHOR-ah) Small town at the trailhead to Choquequirao. Calancha, Antonio de la: Augustinian monk and author of the seventeenth-century Coronica Moralizada, a history that contains important clues to the location of Vilcabamba.
Capac Ñan: (Cah-POCK-Nyahn) The royal Inca highway system, which, at its peak, stretched more than ten thousand miles.
Choquequirao: (Choh-kay-kee-ROW) An important Inca citadel constructed high above the Apurimac River. It was first visited by Bingham in 1909, when it was believed to be the legendary Lost City of the Incas. It is considered by many to be the sister site of Machu Picchu, because of physical similarities between the two. Several terraces decorated with stone llamas were discovered there in 2005.
Concevidayoc: (Chon-sch-vee-DIE-ock) Small settlement on the trail from Vitcos to Espiritu Pampa. Bingham expected to confront the savage potentate Saavedra there in 1911.
Cura Ocllo: (Koo-rah-OH-klo) Manco Inca’s favorite wife and queen (and half sister).
Cusco: (koos-koh) Onetime holy city and capital of the Inca empire, known then as the Tawantinsuyu. Now a hub for tourism.
Espiritu Pampa: (Es-PEER-ee-too POM-pah) Modern name of Vilcabamba, a large Inca settlement in the rain forest and the last capital of the rebel Inca empire.
Hidroeléctrica: (Hee-droh-ee-LECK-tree-kah) Lesser-known train station on the far side of Machu Picchu, named for the nearby hydroelectric plant.
Huadquiña: (Wahd-KEEN-yah) Hacienda near Machu Picchu, where Bingham often visited on his trips to Peru.
Huancacalle: (Wahn-kah-KIE-yay) Small town near Vitcos and Puquiura; location of the Cobos family hostel, Sixpac Manco.
Huascar: (WAHS-kar) Inca emperor from 1527 to 1532. The civil war he fought against his half brother, Atahualpa, weakened the empire’s armies just prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors.
Huayna Capac: (WHY-nah KAH-pock) Inca emperor 1493–1527. Died suddenly, making possible the devastating war of succession between his sons Huascar and Atahualpa.
Huayna Picchu: (WHY-nah PEE-chow) Moderate-sized but very sacred peak at the north end of the Machu Picchu site.
Huayna Pucará: (WHY-nah Poo-kar-AH) Defensive fortification constructed by the Incas high above the road from Vitcos to Vilcabamba; their strategy—unsuccessful—was to crush advancing Spanish soldiers by dropping boulders onto them from above.
INC: The Instituto Nacional de Cultura, the Peruvian agency in charge of maintaining the country’s ancient heritage.
Inca Trail: Former royal path to Machu Picchu, now famous as a hiking trail. Rediscovered by Hiram Bingham in 1915.
Intihuatana: (In-tee-wah-TAH-nah) This name can refer to almost any carved Inca stone dedicated to sun worship, but the two most famous intihuatanas are 1) the angled, sculpted stone at Machu Picchu’s highest point, and 2) the larger granite carving below the site, near the Hidroeléctrica train station.
Koricancha: (Kor-ree-CAHN-chah) Primary sun temple of the Inca religion, located in Cusco.
Llactapata: (Yahk-tah-PAH-tah) An Inca site located across the valley from Machu Picchu; found by Bingham in 1912.
Manco Inca Yupanqui: (Man-KOH-Een-KAH Yoo-PAN-kee) Puppet king selected by conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1533; he soon turned against his patron and led the Inca rebellion against their occupiers. He established Vilcabamba as the new capital of his empire, but was killed at Vitcos in 1544.
Mandor Pampa: (MAN-dor POM-pah) A small flood plain below Machu Picchu, where Bingham camped the night before his famous discovery.
Markham, Clements: President of the Royal Geographical Society at the turn of the twentieth century and an expert on ancient Peru; his work on the Incas greatly influenced Bingham’s expeditions.
Mount Machu Picchu: Moderate-size peak that overlooks the southern end of the Machu Picchu site.
Ollantaytambo: (Oy-yan-tie-TAHM-boh) The most important Inca site between Cusco and Machu Picchu, and the location of the greatest Inca military victory against the Spanish conquistadors.
Pacaritambo: (Pah-kar-ree-TAHM-boh) Small town outside of Cusco, believed by many to be the location
of the cave called Tampu Tocco, the legendary birthplace of the Incas.
Pachacutec: (Pah-chah-koo-teck) Ruler of the Incas from 1438 to 1471 and founder of the greatest royal dynasty in Inca history. (He is often compared to Alexander the Great.) He launched a building program that created many of the most famous works of Inca architecture, including Machu Picchu and the Koricancha.
Pachamama: (Pah-chah-MAH-mah) The Earth Mother, an important fertility goddess in traditional Andean beliefs.
Patallacta: (Pah-tah-YOCK-tah) A onetime satellite town of Machu Picchu, located near the start of the Inca Trail.
Phuyupatamarca: (Foo-yoo-pah-tah-MAR-kah) A high-altitude set of ruins near the end of the Inca Trail, known for its spectacular 360-degree mountain views.
Pizarro, Francisco: Spaniard who was the conqueror and first governor of Peru. He ordered the execution of the emperor Atahualpa, and was himself killed by supporters of his former partner, Diego de Almagro.
