69. NYCD 6:870 (Hendrick quote); Timothy J. Shannon, Indians and Colonists at the Crossroads of Empire: The Albany Congress of 1754 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 168.
70. Claus quoted in Thomas Flexner, Lord of the Mohawks (Boston: Little, Brown, 1959), 122; PTJ 2:99.
71. EAID 2:363; CRP 6:180, 182–84; Dinwiddie Papers 1:369.
72. EAID 2:398; Virginia Gazette, Nov. 7, 1754; CRP 6:342 (Scarouady seems to be the speaker).
73. Dinwiddie Papers 1:427, 430; WJP 9:155–56.
74. C. Hale Sipe, The Indian Wars of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA: Telegraph Press, 1929), 173–74.
75. JHBV, 1752–58, 217–18; PGW, Col. 1:209, 219–20.
76. Dinwiddie Papers 1:524.
77. Anderson, George Washington Remembers, 18 (“degrading”); PGW, Col. 1:223–27; CO 5/15, pt. 1:5.
78. CRP 6:186.
Chapter 5: Braddock and the Limits of Empire
1. Thomas E. Crocker, Braddock’s March: How the Man Sent to Seize a Continent Changed American History (Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2009), 47–56; Dinwiddie Papers 2:32–33, 72.
2. Dinwiddie Papers 2:48, 273.
3. Douglas Edward Leach, Roots of Conflict: British Armed Forces and Colonial Americans, 1677–1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), ch. 5; Douglas R. Cubbison, On Campaign against Fort Duquesne: The Braddock and Forbes Expeditions, 1755–1758, through the Experiences of Quartermaster Sir John St. Clair (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2015), ch. 3.
4. CRP 6:307.
5. Francis Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York: Norton, 1988), 141–51; Louis P. Masur, ed., The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin with Related Documents, 2nd ed. (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003), 139–43.
6. Bernhard Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 1732–1775 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1964), 44.
7. John Ferling, The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009), 26, 28.
8. PGW, Col. 1:241–49 (correspondence with Orme), 256 (“worthy of his notice”).
9. Marion Tinling, ed., The Correspondence of the Three William Byrds of Westover, Virginia, 1684–1776, 2 vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1977), 2:615.
10. PGW, Col. 1:277–78; Crocker, Braddock’s March, 71–75.
11. Quoted in David Clary, George Washington’s First War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 122.
12. Crocker, Braddock’s March, 47–48, 56, 63.
13. Daniel P. Barr, A Colony Sprung from Hell: Pittsburgh and the Struggle for Authority on the Western Pennsylvania Frontier, 1744–1794 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2014), 60–61.
14. Dinwiddie Papers 2:70, 76–77.
15. Quoted in Hugh Cleland, George Washington in the Ohio Valley (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955), 127–29.
16. David L. Preston, “ ‘Make Indians of Our White Men’: British Soldiers and Indian Warriors from Braddock’s to Forbes’s Campaign, 1755–1758,” Pennsylvania History 74 (2007): 285–86; Clary, George Washington’s First War, 134; Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Knopf, 2000), 95.
17. Beverley Bond Jr., ed., “The Captivity of Charles Stuart, 1755–57,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 13 (June 1926): 63–65.
18. Dinwiddie Papers 2:426; Masur, Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, 144.
19. WJP 9:171–79, 188, 191–98; Winthrop Sargent, ed., The History of an Expedition against Fort Du Quesne in 1755; under Major-General Edward Braddock (1856; Lewisburg, PA: Wennawoods Publishing, 1997), 309; Wilbur R. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts: The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1748–1763 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966), 142–43.
20. NYCD 7:270; EAID 3:200; Charles A. Hanna, The Wilderness Trail, 2 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1911), 2:16.
21. Daniel P. Barr, “ ‘This Land Is Ours and Not Yours’: The Western Delawares and the Seven Years’ War in the Upper Ohio Valley, 1755–1758,” in The Boundaries between Us: Natives and Newcomers along the Frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, 1750–1850, ed. Daniel P. Barr (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2006), 28–30.
22. WJP 9:203–4.
23. David L. Preston, Braddock’s Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), esp. 81–82, 109–18. George Yagi, The Struggle for North America, 1754–1758: Britannia’s Tarnished Laurels (London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2016) similarly dismantles stereotypes about British arrogance and ineptitude in the early years of the war.
24. D. Peter MacLeod, The Canadian Iroquois and the Seven Years’ War (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1996), 50–51; Preston, Braddock’s Defeat, 135–37; Barbara Graymont, “Atiatoharongwen,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 5 (University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–), http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/atiatoharongwen_5E.html (accessed April 2, 2015).
25. Anderson, Crucible of War, 106–7.
26. Preston, Braddock’s Defeat, 112–13, 191, 204, 245; Francis Jennings, ed., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1985), 240–41; 246; EAID 2:415, 3:45–46n, 55n; CRP 6:524. (C. Hale Sipe, The Indian Wars of Pennsylvania [Harrisburg, PA: Telegraph Press, 1929], 181, said White Thunder did not return to Braddock’s army after conducting the Indian women back to Aughwick.) Newcastle died of smallpox in Philadelphia in November 1756, and Jerry was killed by British soldiers; Hanna, Wilderness Trail 1:79–80; WJP 9:566, 825; James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York: Norton, 1999), 65–66 (Kanuksusy’s names).
27. Anderson, Crucible of War, 106.
28. Clary, George Washington’s First War, 135–37; PGW, Col. 1:281–93.
29. PGW, Col. 1:322, quoted in Cubbison, On Campaign against Fort Duquesne, 86.
30. PGW, Col. 1:321; Crocker, Braddock’s March, 178–82; Preston, Braddock’s Defeat, 180–82.
31. PGW, Col. 1:322; Peter Way, “The Cutting Edge of Culture: British Soldiers Encounter Native Americans in the French and Indian War,” in Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples, 1600–1850, ed. Martin Daunton and Rick Halpern (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 123–48.
32. Crocker, Braddock’s March, 196; Preston, Braddock’s Defeat, 204; Sargent, History of an Expedition against Fort Du Quesne, 350.
33. PGW, Col. 1:319.
34. Cubbison, On Campaign against Fort Duquesne, 129–30.
35. Preston, Braddock’s Defeat, 355; John W. Jordan, ed., “Journal of James Kenny, 1761–1763,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 37 (1913), 183 (no Delawares).
36. Preston, Braddock’s Defeat is the definitive account of the battle. See also Anderson, Crucible of War, ch. 9; Croker, Braddock’s March, ch. 18.
37. CRP 6:488. A list of the officers killed and wounded is at 489–91.
38. PGW, Col. 1:336, 343.
39. George Washington Parke Custis, Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington, ed. Benson J. Lossing (New York: Derby & Jackson, 1860), 304 (“chief of nations”); Sipe, Indian Wars of Pennsylvania, 189; John Joseph Mathews, The Osages: Children of the Middle Waters (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), 226–27.
40. CO 5/146, pt. 1:47–48; PGW, Col. 1:336–37, 339, 343; Writings of Washington 1:148–50.
41. “Anonymous Letter, July 25, 1755,” quoted in PGW, Col. 1:338n.
42. Quoted in Cubbison, On Campaign against Fort Duquesne, 110.
43. Crocker, Braddock’s March, 222; John Mack Faragher, Daniel Boone, The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer (New York: Henry Holt, 1992), 37–38.
44. Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed., Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (Norman: U
niversity of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 45.
45. Fred Anderson, ed., George Washington Remembers: Reflections on the French and Indian War (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), 19; David Humphreys, “Life of General Washington,” with George Washington’s “Remarks,” ed. Rosemarie Zagarri (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991), 15; Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 34; Don Higginbotham, ed., George Washington Reconsidered (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2011), 60.
46. Anderson, George Washington Remembers, 20; Humphreys, “Life of General Washington,” with George Washington’s “Remarks,” 18.
47. Anderson, George Washington Remembers, 21. See also, PGW, Col. 1:298–99.
48. CRP 6:496, 514.
49. PGW, Col. 1:340, 342, 344; JHBV, 1752–58, 297; Dinwiddie Papers 2:118–20, 123, 140–49, 160, 163–64, 172–75, 181–82, 192–94, 204–10, 215–16, 221–25, 229–31, 258–59; CO 5/16, pt. 2:174, 181–85, 272–73; CRP 6:513, 548, 558, 563, 602; Masur, Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, 145.
50. CRP 6:593.
51. EAID 2:414–17; CRP 6:589–91; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 165–66.
52. CRP 6:783.
53. Barr, “ ‘This Land Is Ours and Not Yours,’ ” 29–32; Richard S. Grimes, “We ‘Now Have Taken Up the Hatchet against Them’: Braddock’s Defeat and the Martial Liberation of the Western Delawares,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 137 (July 2013): 227–59; Eric Hinderaker, “Declaring Independence: The Ohio Indians and the Seven Years’ War,” in Cultures in Conflict: The Seven Years’ War in America, ed. Warren R. Hofstra (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 105–25.
54. PGW, Col. 1:352.
55. PGW, Col. 2:114.
56. Dinwiddie Papers 2:184–86; JHBV, 1752–58, 302, 309–10, 319; PGW, Col. 1:356–59, 2:3–4; Clary, George Washington’s First War, 168–70; Edward G. Lengel, General George Washington: A Military Life (New York: Random House, 2005), 63–64.
57. PGW, Col. 1:359.
58. EAID 3:481n (Warriors’ Path).
59. PGW, Col. 2:17–20, 23, 27.
60. Warren R. Hofstra, “ ‘A Parcel of Barbarian’s and an Uncouth Set of People’: Settlers and Settlements of the Shenandoah Valley,” in George Washington and the Virginia Backcountry, ed. Warren R. Hofstra (Madison, WI: Madison House, 1998), 92.
61. James Titus, The Old Dominion at War: Society, Politics and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992), 94–95, 102; Ian K. Steele, Setting All the Captives Free: Capture, Adjustment, and Recollection in Allegheny Country (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2013), 117.
62. PGW, Col. 2:72–73.
63. James Thomas Flexner, George Washington: The Forge of Experience, 1732–1775 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1965), 163.
64. Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: Norton, 2008), ch. 4; Matthew C. Ward, Breaking the Backcountry: The Seven Years’ War in Virginia and Pennsylvania, 1754–1765 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003), 45–58; Matthew C. Ward,, “ ‘The European Method of Warring Is Not Practiced Here’: The Failure of British Military Policy in the Ohio Valley, 1755–1759,” War in History 4 (1997), 247–63; Barr, “ ‘This Land Is Ours and Not Yours,’ ” 30–31; PGW, Col. 5:33; NYCD 10:413 (Vaudreuil quote); WJP 9:310 (“vast Tract”). French summaries of the Delaware and Shawnee raids are in NYCD 10:423–25, 435–37, 469–70, 481–82, 486.
65. Hinderaker, “Declaring Independence”; Ian K. Steele, “Shawnee Origins of Their Seven Years’ War,” Ethnohistory 53 (2006): 657–87; NYCD 10:423; EAID 3:445; CO 5/1328:28–29; Bouquet Papers 4:405.
66. EAID 3:2, 15, 19 (“Dogs” and “Slaves”), 148 (Teedyuscung).
67. EAID 3:423–25. Ackawonothio is variously identified as western Delaware or Shawnee.
68. Michael A. McDonnell, Masters of Empire: Great Lakes Indians and the Making of America (New York: Hill & Wang, 2015), 170–71, 177; Barr, “’This Land Is Ours and Not Yours,’ ” 30–37.
69. Timothy J. Shannon, “War, Diplomacy, and Culture: The Iroquois Experience in the Seven Years’ War,” in Hofstra, Cultures in Conflict: The Seven Years’ War in North America, 79–103.
70. EAID 3:7 (“ill Language”), 213 (“private Parts”); WJP 9:310 (“no longer Women”).
71. Jane T. Merritt, At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700–1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), ch. 5; Bouquet Papers 4:405 (“greatest Mischief”); Steele, Setting All the Captives Free, ch. 4 (Patton at 86).
72. Bond, “Captivity of Charles Stuart, 1755–57,” 62.
73. Steele, Setting All the Captives Free, ch. 4 (figures at 115–16); James E. Seaver, ed., A Narrative of the Life of Mrs. Mary Jemison (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995).
74. “The Narrative of Marie le Roy and Barbara Leininger, for Three Years Captives among the Indians,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 29 (1905), 409. Similarly, Susanna Johnson and her family expected severe beatings when their Abenaki captors marched them through the gauntlet at Odanak in Quebec, but “each Indian only gave us a tap on the shoulder.” “A Narrative of the Captivity of Mrs. Johnson,” in North Country Captives: Selected Narratives of Indian Captivity from Vermont and New Hampshire, ed. Colin G. Calloway (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1992), 66.
75. Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Adair’s History of the American Indians (1930; New York: Promontory Press, n.d.), 172; Steele, Setting All the Captives Free, ch. 4.
76. Ward, Breaking the Backcountry, 70 (one thousand); Ward, “ ‘The European Method of Warring Is Not Practiced Here,’ ” 247–48 (casualties and territory abandoned); Ferling, The Ascent of George Washington, 33 (one-third); Steele, Setting All the Captives Free, 99 (928 farms and swath of territory).
77. Merritt, At the Crossroads, 184–88; Amy C. Schutt, Peoples of the River Valleys: The Odyssey of the Delaware Indians (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 114; Steele, Setting All the Captives Free, 95–96; Masur, Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, 148; Patrick Spero, Frontier Country: The Politics of War in Early Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), 112–18.
78. Scoouwa: James Smith’s Indian Captivity Narrative (1799; Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 1978), 62.
79. Titus, The Old Dominion at War, 1–5, 72; Ward, Breaking the Backcountry, 92; PGW, Col. 4:90.
80. Humphreys, “Life of General Washington,” with George Washington’s “Remarks,” 20.
81. Dinwiddie Papers 2:116–18, 155 (“Panick”).
82. Dinwiddie Papers 2:114, 474.
83. Titus, The Old Dominion at War, ch. 2; Ward, Breaking the Backcountry, ch. 3.
84. Titus, Old Dominion at War, 75–77, 142–48.
85. Anderson, George Washington Remembers, 21; Humphreys, “Life of General Washington,” with George Washington’s “Remarks,” xxxviii–xl.
86. Dinwiddie Papers 2:425–26.
87. Dinwiddie Papers 2:325, 355.
88. PGW, Col. 5:33.
89. Masur, Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, 145.
90. Lengel, General George Washington, 61–62. Stephen Brumwell, Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755–1763 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), chs. 6–7; Ward, “ ‘The European Method of Warring Is Not Practiced Here,’ ” 252–57; Way, “Cutting Edge of Culture”; John W. Hall, “An Irregular Reconsideration of George Washington and the American Military Tradition,” Journal of Military History 78 (2014): 961–93; Wayne E. Lee, Barbarians and Brothers: Anglo-American Warfare, 1500–1865 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 192.
91. Hofstra, “ ‘A Parcel of Barbarian’s,’ ” 88–92; Dinwiddie Papers 2:236–38; PGW, Col. 2:101–3, 3:6.
92. Warren R. Hofstra, “ ‘And Die by Inches’: George Washington and the Encounter of Cultures on the Southern Colonial Frontier,” in George Washington’s
South, ed. Tamara Harvey and Greg O’Brien (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), ch. 3 (quotes at 71, 75).
93. PGW, Col. 2:109–10 (“not to be alarmed”); 156–60 (“more scared” at 158); Gregory Evans Dowd, Groundless: Rumors, Legends, and Hoaxes on the Early American Frontier (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015), 102–14.
94. PGW, Col. 2:213, 278, 290.
Chapter 6: Frontier Defense and a Cherokee Alliance
1. Paul Kelton, “The British and Indian War: Cherokee Power and the Fate of Empire in North America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 69 (2012): 763–92; Daniel J. Tortora, Carolina in Crisis: Cherokees, Colonists, and Slaves in the American Southeast, 1756–1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 44–46; Douglas McClure Wood, “ ‘I Have Now Made a Path to Virginia’: Outacite Ostenaco and the Cherokee-Virginia Alliance in the French and Indian War,” West Virginia History, n.s., 2 (Fall 2008): 31–60.
2. PGW, Col. 2:54–56, 72, 97–99, 120, 125, 140–41, 154; Dinwiddie Papers 2:240, 243.
3. EAID 13:86–87, 133–43.
4. William L. McDowell Jr., ed., Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1750–1754 (Columbia: South Carolina Archives Department, 1958), 433–34, 439; Samuel Cole Williams, ed., Adair’s History of the American Indians (1930; New York: Promontory Press, n.d.), 255.
5. EAID 13:216–17, 280–302.
6. Theda Perdue, “Cherokee Relations with the Iroquois in the Eighteenth Century,” in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 135–40; Tyler Boulware, Deconstructing the Cherokee Nation: Town, Region, and Nation among Eighteenth-Century Cherokees (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2011).
7. Dinwiddie Papers 2:168–69, 187–89, 263, 267, 270, 280, 285–86, 289–90, 298–305, 308; William L. McDowell Jr., ed., The Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1754–1765 (Columbia: South Carolina Department of Archives and History, 1970), 102, 106–8; Marion Tinling, ed., The Correspondence of the Three William Byrds of Westover, Virginia, 1684–1776, 2 vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1977), 2:619–21; EAID 5:201–22 and CO5/1328:205–23 (treaty).
The Indian World of George Washington Page 69
