See also: Legendary Kings: Goshtasp; Katayun; Kay Khosrow
Further Reading
Ferdowsi. Shahnameh. Edited by Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh. New York: Mazda Publishers, 1997.
Ferdowsi, Abulqasem. Shahnameh. Translated by Dick Davis. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.
Gardizi. Tarikh-e Gardizi. Edited by Abdol-Hay Habibi. Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab, 1985.
Ibn al-Balkhi. Farsnama. Edited by G. Le Strange and R. A. Nicholson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1921.
Pahlavi Texts, Part I: The Bundahishn. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Skjærvø, Prods Oktor. “Kayāniān VII: Kauui Haosrauuah, Kay Husrōy, Kay Kosrow.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2013, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kayanian-vii.
Tabari. Tarikh-e Tabari, Vol. 2. Translated from Arabic into Persian by Abol Qassem Payandeh. Tehran: Asatir Publications, 1984.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Manuchehr
Manuchehr (Manochihr) is a king of the legendary Pishdadian dynasty. He appears as “the holy Manushchitra, the son of Airyu [Ēraj/Iraj]” in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Farvardin Yasht, 131). Thus, he traces his lineage to the great warrior King Thraetaona (Ferēdūn, Fereydun) and Thraetaona’s youngest son, Airyu (Ēraj/Iraj). According to the Pahlavi text the Bundahishn, the king, Fereydun (Ferēdūn), had three sons: Salm, Tuj (Tur), and Ēraj. Ēraj had two sons and one daughter. The brothers of Ēraj, Salm and Tur, killed him and his two sons, but Fereydun saved the daughter of Ēraj by hiding her. When this daughter of Ēraj grew up, she gave birth to a girl who was also kept by Fereydun in concealment. Salm and Tur killed the daughter of Ēraj, but eventually after several generations a boy was born who was named Manushchihr (Manuchehr) (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 31.9–14). He was born on a mountain called Manusha, the second mountain that rose up out of the earth (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Zamyad Yasht, 1; Bundahishn: 12.10). In avenging the death of Ēraj, Manushchihr slays Salm and Tur (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 31.12). Manushchihr ascends the throne after the death of Fereydun and rules for 120 years (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 34.6). Bundahishn also credits Manushchihr with discovering the sources of the Euphrates River, which rises in Armenia, traverses Syria, and joins the Tigris. We are also told that he built canals for irrigation along the course of the Euphrates (Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn, 20.10–12, 78n3).
In the Shahnameh [Book of Kings] of Ferdowsi, Manuchehr appears as a descendant of the great king of the Pishdadian dynasty, Fereydun, and the latter’s third son, Iraj. After defeating the demonic tyrant Zahhak, Fereydun ascends the throne. By the age of 50, Fereydun has three sons. The oldest is Salm, the second son is Tur, and the third son is Iraj. Fereydun then divides his vast kingdom among his three sons. Salm receives the lands of the west, namely Asia Minor and the land of Slavs; Tur is allotted the eastern provinces, the land of the Turks and China; and Iraj receives the middle kingdom, which is centered in Iran. This division ignites the jealousy of the two older brothers, who murder Iraj. They then send the decapitated head of their brother to King Fereydun. In the midst of lamentations and mourning for his ill-fated son, Fereydun is informed that Mahafarid, a wife of Iraj, has given birth to a beautiful girl who resembles her father. Fereydun raises the child as his own, and when she reaches the appropriate age, he arranges for a marriage between her and one of his nephews. A son is born from this union who is named Manuchehr. Fereydun appoints Manuchehr as his successor and raises him as an honorable, educated, and courageous young man. The army of Iran, led by Manuchehr, marches against the combined forces of Salm and Tur. After several days of bloody warfare, Manuchehr prevails. Tur is killed on the battlefield. The remainder of the enemy forces under the command of Salm retreat to a fortress. After several battles, Salm is defeated and slain. The victorious Manuchehr then sends a message to Fereydun informing the great king of his victories. When Manuchehr returns to the court, he dismounts and kisses the ground to greet the great king. Fereydun takes Manuchehr’s hand and places him on the throne. Shortly after the defeat of Salm and Tur, Fereydun dies, and Manuchehr ascends the throne as the king. But the wars between Iran and Turan (the land named after Tur), which forms one of the central themes of the Shahnameh, are only beginning, igniting a feud between the kings of Iran and Turan that would last for generations.
During his long reign, Manuchehr fights the Turanian king Afrasiyab, who proves to be a shrewd, calculating, and highly intelligent adversary. On one occasion, Afrasiyab corners Manuchehr and forces him to sue for peace. When Manuchehr agrees to make peace with Afrasiyab, it is stipulated that the best of Iran’s archers “should ascend Mount Damavand and from thence discharge an arrow towards the east; and that the place in which the arrow” falls “should form the boundary” between the two kingdoms of Iran and Turan (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: 95n2). The archer Arash volunteers to climb the mountain and discharge his arrow. The arrow of the great archer travels from dawn until noon and it falls on the banks of the Oxus River (Amu Darya) (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: 95n2), which is then established as the boundary between Iran and Turan. The Pahlavi text Mah-e Farvardin Ruz-e Khordad [The Month of Farvardin the Day of Khordad] states that on the sixth day of Farvardin, the first month of the Iranian calendar, King Manuchehr, together with Arash Shivatir of the swift arrow, reclaimed the Iranian lands from Afrasiyab, the Turanian who had invaded Iran. The scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni linked the story of Arash to the feast of Tiragan (Tirgan), which was celebrated on the day of Tir (i.e., the 13th day of each month) in the month of Tir, the fourth month in the Iranian calendar. Biruni wrote:
on the 13th, or Tir-Roz, there is a feast Tiragan, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. Of the two causes to which it is traced, one is this, that Afrasiyab after having subdued Eranshahr (Iran), and while besieging Minocihr [Manuchehr] in Tabaristan [the Caspian province of Mazandaran] asked him some favor. Minocihr complied with his wish, on the condition that he (Afrasiyab) should restore to him a part of Eranshahr as long and as broad as an arrow-shot. On that occasion there was a genius present, called Isfandarmadh; he ordered to be brought a bow and an arrow of such a size as he himself had indicated to the arrow-maker, in conformity with that which is manifest in the Avesta. Then he sent for Arish, a noble, pious, and wise man, and ordered him to take the bow and to shoot the arrow. Arish stepped forward, took off his clothes, and said: “O king, and ye others, look at my body. I am free from any wound or disease. I know that when I shoot with this bow and arrow I shall fall to pieces and my life will be gone, but I have determined to sacrifice it for you.” Then he applied himself to the work and bent the bow with all the power God had given him; then he shot, and fell asunder into pieces. By the order of God the wind bore the arrow away from the mountain of Ruyan and brought it to the utmost frontier of Khurasan between Farghana and Tabaristan; there it hit the trunk of a nut-tree that was so large that there had never been a tree like it in the world. The distance between the place where the arrow was shot and that where it fell was 1,000 Farsakh. Afrasiyab and Minocihr made a treaty on the basis of this shot that was shot on this day. In consequence people made it a feast-day. (Biruni: 205, 25)
In a section of his History, devoted to the festivals of Zoroastrians, the historian Gardizi wrote that on the 13th day of the month of Tir, the Zoroastrians celebrated a festival called Tirgan (Gardizi: 518–519), for it was on this day that the king of Iran, Manuchehr, made peace with Afrasiyab, the king of Turan, after they agreed that the arrow of an archer should set the boundary between the two kingdoms. The archer Arash discharged an arrow that traveled from the mountains of Ruyan (northern Iran) and landed on a mountain between Farghaneh (present-day Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan) and Tokharestan (present-day northern Afghanistan) (Gardizi: 518). Gardizi added that on this day the
Zoroastrians bathed and cleansed themselves. They also cooked a dish that contained wheat mixed with fruits (Gardizi: 518–519).
See also: Ancient Provinces: Alborz; Legendary Kings: Arash; Afrasiyab; Fereydun; Zahhak
Further Reading
Biruni, Abu Rayhan. Athar ul-Baqiya. Translated by C. Edward Sachau as The Chronology of Ancient Nations. London: W. H. Allen, 1879.
Bundahishn. Edited by Mehrdad Bahar. Tehran: Tus Publications, 1991.
Ferdowsi, Abulqasem. Shahnameh. Edited by Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh. New York: Mazda Publishers, 1997.
Ferdowsi, Abulqasem. Shahnameh. Translated by Dick Davis. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.
Gardizi. Tarikh-e Gardizi. Edited by Abdol-Hay Habibi. Tehran: Donya-ye Ketabi, 1985.
Kia, Sadeq. Mah-e Farvardin Ruz-e Khordad. Tehran: Iran Kudeh, Number 16, 1952.
Pahlavi Texts, Part I: Bundahishn. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts, and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Pishdadian
Pishdadian is the name of the first dynasty in the legendary history of Greater Iran. Iranian tradition names the kings of the Pishdadian dynasty as Hushang (Hoshang), Tahmures (Tahmurath), Jamshid (Jamshēd), Zahhak (Dahāk), Fereydun (Ferēdun), Iraj (Ēraj), Manuchehr (Manochihr), Nowzar, Zab (Zav), and Garshasp (Garshasb).
The legendary Pishdadian dynasty traces its origins to Gayomard (Gaya Maretan of the Avesta, Gayomard of Pahlavi texts, and Gayomart of the Shahnameh [Book of Kings]), who in Zoroastrian tradition is designated as the first man created by the wise lord Ahura Mazda in Airyanem Vaejah (Expanse of the Aryans), the mythological homeland of the Iranian people. In his Shahnameh, the poet Ferdowsi described Gayomart as the first king of the world, a monarch who established the rules and ceremonies of kingship. He lives in the mountains and wears animal skins. He teaches his people how to prepare food and clothing. He subdues wild animals and forces them to obey his authority. He has a son, Siyamak, whom he loves with his whole heart. The handsome Siyamak is loved by everyone, but he has a dangerous enemy in Ahriman, the evil spirit who is jealous of the beauty and wisdom of the young prince. Ahriman and his son organize an army and attack Gayomart. Siyamak leads his father’s army to the battlefield. When the battle is joined, Siyamak is killed. The news of his death devastates Gayomart, who mourns for an entire year.
A year after Siyamak’s death, the angel Sorush delivers a message from God that Gayomart should cease mourning and instead raise an army against the evil spirit. Gayomart has raised Siyamak’s surviving son, Hushang (Haoshyangha of the Avesta), and loves him dearly. The grandfather and grandson gather their forces and march against the evil spirit and his supporters. When the two armies clash, Hushang defeats the enemy and kills the son of Ahriman, who has served as the commander of his father’s army. Shortly after exacting his revenge, Gayomart dies after a reign of 30 years. He is succeeded by his grandson Hushang, who ascends the throne as the founder of the Pishdadian dynasty.
In the Avesta, Hushang appears as “Haoshyangha, the Paradhata [Pishdad]” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Aban Yasht, 21; Ram Yasht, 7; Ashi Yasht, 26; Zamyad Yasht, 26). Here he offers a sacrifice to the deity Vayu so he can receive blessing and support in his attempt to kill “two-thirds of the Daevas [demons]” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Ram Yasht, 7). In Zamyad Yasht, “Haoshyangha, the Paradhata,” was presented as the king of the seven regions of Earth who “ruled over the Daevas [demons], the Yatus [wizards], the Pairikas [witches], the oppressors, the blind, and the deaf; he who smote two-thirds of the Daevas of Mazana and of the Varenya fiends” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Zamyad Yasht, 5.26).
In the Pahlavi texts such as the Dinkard, Hushang is credited with “the establishment of law and custom … that of village superintendence, … for the cultivation and nourishment of the world, based upon the traditional early law … ; and … of monarchy, for the protection and government of the creatures” (Pahlavi Texts, Part V: Dinkard, 8.13.5). Hushang is also recognized as the king who discovers fire. Once as he is about to kill a snake, the stone he is throwing at the serpent strikes a rock and ignites fire. After discovering fire, Hushang extracts metals from rocks, melts iron, manufactures such instruments as axes and saws, and builds log houses. Tradition has it that Hushang also introduced the concept of agricultural production by drawing water for irrigation of crops from rivers, teaching men to hunt wild animals for their meat, and domesticating animals as well. He is said to have built houses and temples for the purpose of worshipping and venerating god. After 40 years (according to Bundahishn) or 30 years (according to Ferdowsi) of ruling the world, Hushang dies. He is succeeded by his great-grandson, Tahmures (Tahmurath).
In the Zoroastrian holy book, Avesta, Tahmures appears as “the well-armed Takhma Urupa” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Ram Yasht, 11; Zamyad Yasht, 28). In Pahlavi texts, he appears as the second ruler of the seven regions of the world (Pahlavi Texts, Part V: Marvels of Zoroastrianism: Dinkard, 8.13.6). In Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, upon ascending the throne Tahmures declares that he intends to rid the world from evil. In pursuing this goal, Tahmures raises an army, attacks the demons, kills two-thirds of them, and captures and imprisons the remaining one-third. His victory over the demons earns him the title “Divband” (Demon Binder). Humbled by Tahmures, the demons attempt to reach a compromise with him: they promise that if he keeps them alive, they would be willing to teach him some of their secrets. Tahmures agrees, and the demons teach him how to write in 30 languages. Tahmures also introduces the technique of breeding new animals and teaches people the art of spinning and weaving wool. He trains falcons and cheetahs to assist humans in hunting wild animals. After ruling for 30 years, Tahmures dies and is succeeded by Jamshid.
Jamshid rules men and demons for over 600 years. He is presented as the greatest of all kings of the legendary Pishdadian dynasty. It is Jamshid who is credited with teaching “the fashioning of metal; the spinning and weaving of silk and cotton; the making of linen from flax; the mining of gold and silver; the production of perfume and spices, and the erecting of houses and baths with quarried stone” (Avery: 146–147). Jamshid also appears as the most colorful of all the kings of Iran’s legendary history. Historians of the Islamic era credited him with the creation of the social estates. The first consisted of men of religion, the second were the men of the army, and the third was made up of the commoners, namely the merchants, artisans, and peasant farmers. The greatness of Jamshid in Iranian mythology reached such a point that the commencement of Nowruz, the Persian New Year, and the construction of Persepolis, the magnificent palace complex of the Persian Achaemenid kings built by Darius I (r. 522–486 BCE) and his successors, were both attributed to him. Hence, the name of Persepolis in Persian, even today, is Takht-e Jamshid (Throne of Jamshid). Jamshid’s folly, however, is that he falls in love with pride and, persuaded by the evil spirit Ahriman, declares himself divine (Avery: 147). Once he declares himself divine, Jamshid loses divine glory (khvarnah or farr) and falls victim to the demonic Zahhak, a descendant of Siyamak on his father’s side and of Ahriman, or the evil spirit, on his mother’s side.
In the Avesta, Zahhak (Dahak) appears as Azhi Dahaka (Dragon), a “three-headed, the three-mouthed and the six-eyed” monster who “has a thousand senses,” the most powerful, “fiendish Druj [the lie], that demon, baleful to the world, the strongest Druj that Angra Mainyu [the evil spirit] created against the material world, to destroy the world of good principle” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Aban Yasht, 61–62). The Azhi Dahaka of the Avesta worships Aredvi Sura Anahita in a castle in the land of Bawri, which has been identified by some scholars as Babylon. In Iran’s legendary history, Zahhak appears as a brutal and bloodthirsty tyrant. Upon seizing the throne, Zahhak organizes a search to locate Jamshid. Once Jamshid is captured, Zahhak orders his body to be sawed in half. Having murdered Jamshid, the tyrant rules with oppression and injustice for 1,000 year
s.
In the Shahnameh, the Persian epic poet Ferdowsi portrays Zahhak as the son of an Arab king. In sharp contrast to his father, who is a just, generous, and compassionate ruler, Zahhak is a scheming, ruthless, and brutal prince. His demonic and tyrannical character attracts the devil, who approaches Zahhak and encourages him to murder his father. Initially Zahhak resists the temptation to kill his father, but he is eventually seduced to participate in a plot hatched by the devil to eliminate the king. After the devil murders his father, Zahhak assumes the reins of power. The devil now reappears as a master in culinary arts and feeds Zahhak the most sumptuous dishes. Greatly impressed by his skillful and gifted chef, Zahhak asks the devil whether he has a wish that the king can fulfill. The devil responds that his only wish is to be allowed to express his love for Zahhak by kissing the king’s shoulders. Zahhak consents to this request. The devil kisses the king’s shoulders, and shortly thereafter two serpents sprout on Zahhak’s shoulders. Thus, in Iranian mythology Zahhak is called Mardush (Serpent/Snake Shoulder). Frightened by the appearance of the two serpents, Zahhak consults with physicians, but none can offer him a remedy. The devil appears yet once again, this time as a healer and a physician who prescribes a solution that he claims will calm the serpents. The remedy he suggests is to feed the serpents the brains of young men daily. Zahhak agrees to the devil’s remedy and orders his guards to detain and kill young men and feed their brains to the serpents on his shoulders. To calm the hunger of the two snakes, Zahhak continues to feed them the brains of young men. Though outraged by his tyranny and savagery, Zahhak’s frightened and intimidated subjects do not protest his heinous acts for fear of violence and retribution from the evil king.
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