47. However, they also tell many fabulous stories about their gods, such, for example, as the following: Oromazes, born from the purest light, and Areimanius, born from the darkness, are constantly at war with each other; and Oromazes created six gods, the first of Good Thought, the second of Truth, the third of Order, and, of the rest, one of Wisdom, one of Wealth, and one the Artificer of Pleasure in what is Honourable. But Areimanius created rivals, as it were, equal to these in number. Then Oromazes enlarged himself to thrice his former size, and removed himself as far distant from the Earth, and adorned the heavens with stars. One star he set there before all others as a guardian and watchman, the Dog-star, Twenty-four other gods he created and placed in an egg. But those created by Areimanius, who were equal in number to the others, pierced through the egg and made their way inside; hence evils are now combined with good. But a destined time shall come when it is decreed that Areimanius, engaged in bringing on pestilence and famine, shall by these be utterly annihilated and shall disappear; and then shall the earth become a level plain, and there shall be one manner of life and one form of government for a blessed people who shall all speak one tongue.
Source: Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, translated by Frank Cole Babitt (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936), 111–115.
6. DESCRIPTION OF THE RISE OF MEDIA DURING THE REIGN OF KING CYAXARES FROM HERODOTUS’S HISTORIES
The Medes established the first Iranian Empire on the Iranian plateau. The origins of the Median state and the events that led to the emergence of the Median kingdom are shrouded in mystery. The Medes were a branch of Iranian-speaking people who settled in the western regions of present-day Iran, most probably sometime during the second millennium BCE. Evidence regarding the origins of the Medes and the internal organization of their society is meager. Archaeological excavations at Median sites in western Iran have so far produced valuable but scanty results. The Assyrian royal inscriptions as well as Babylonian chronicles throw some light on isolated events and encounters between the Medes and their neighbors but do not provide any clear outline of Median history, politics, and social organization. Perhaps the most coherent description of the rise of the Median kingdom is provided by the Greek author Herodotus in his Histories. Herodotus’s account of Median history is, however, riddled with legendary accounts and fictitious stories. Nevertheless, as the only cohesive narrative about the rulers of the Median kingdom, it remains an important historical source. The excerpt below, taken from Herodotus’s Histories, describes the emergence of the Median Empire during the reign of Cyaxares, who according to this account was the grandson of Deioces, the founder of the Median state and the son of the Median monarch Phraortes.
103. When Phraortes had brought his life to an end, Kyaxares [Cyaxares] the son of Phraortes, the son of Deïokes [Deioces], received the power. This king is said to have been yet much more warlike than his forefathers; and he first banded the men of Asia into separate divisions, that is to say, he first arrayed apart from one another the spearmen and the archers and the horsemen, for before that time they were all mingled together without distinction. This was he who fought with the Lydians when the day became night as they fought, and who also united under his rule the whole of Asia above the river Halys. And having gathered together all his subjects he marched upon Nineveh to avenge his father, and also because he desired to conquer that city. And when he had fought a battle with the Assyrians and had defeated them, while he was sitting down before Nineveh there came upon him a great army of Scythians, and the leader of them was Madyas the son of Protohyas [Protothyas], king of the Scythians. These had invaded Asia after driving the Kimmerians [Cimmerians] out of Europe, and in pursuit of them as they fled they had come to the land of Media. …
106. For eight-and-twenty years then the Scythians were rulers of Asia, and by their unruliness and reckless behaviour everything was ruined; for on the one hand they exacted that in tribute from each people which they laid upon them, and apart from the tribute they rode about and carried off by force the possessions of each tribe. Then Kyaxares with the Medes, having invited the greater number of them to a banquet, made them drunk and slew them; and thus the Medes recovered their power, and had rule over the same nations as before; and they also took Nineveh,—the manner how it was taken I shall set forth in another history,—and made the Assyrians subject to them excepting only the land of Babylon.
107. After this Kyaxares died, having reigned forty years including those years during which the Scythians had rule, and Astyages son of Kyaxares received from him the kingdom.
Source: Herodotus, The History of Herodotus, Vol. 1, Book 1.103, translated by G. C. Macaulay (New York: Macmillan, 1890).
7. DESCRIPTION FROM THE BABYLONIAN CHRONICLES OF THE CONQUEST OF THE ASSYRIAN CAPITAL, NINEVEH, BY THE MEDES AND BABYLONIANS
The fall of Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian state, in 612 BCE was a momentous event in the history of the ancient world. It marked the destruction of a powerful empire, which had dominated the political life of the ancient Near East for several centuries, as well as the emergence of the first major Iranian state in the ancient Near East. In the autumn of 615 BCE, the Medes crossed the Zagros Mountains of western Iran and captured Arrapha, present-day Kirkuk in northern Iraq. Then in the summer of 614 BCE the Median monarch Huvakhshtra, who appears as Cyaxares in Herodotus’s Histories, captured Tarbisu, northwest of Ashur, and proceeded to sack Ashur, the first capital of the Assyrian state. The king of Babylonia, who had reached Ashur with his army after it had been seized and destroyed by the Medes, met with the king of the Medes outside the city, where the two monarchs agreed to a treaty of peace and friendship. In the summer of 612 BCE, the Medes joined forces with the Neo-Babylonian Empire and stormed Nineveh, the Assyrian capital. After a long siege and several fierce battles, the city was finally captured. The fall of Nineveh was a deathblow to the Assyrian state. The Assyrian state ceased to exist, and its territory was divided between the Babylonians and the Medes. The following account of the fall of Nineveh is from the Babylonian chronicles.
The king of Akkad cal[led up] his army and [Cyaxar]es, the king of the Manda hordes [Medes] marched towards the king of Akkad. … They met each other. The King of Akkad and [Cyaxar]es. [the …] he ferried across and they marched (upstream) on the embankment of the Tigris and … [pitched camp] against Nineveh. … From the month Simanu till the month Abu, three ba[ttles were fought, then] they made a great attack against the city. In the month Abu, [the … th day, the city was seized and a great defeat] he inflicted [upon the] entire [population]. On that day, Sinsharishkun, king of Assy[ria fled to] … , many prisoners of the city, beyond counting, they carried away. The city [they turned] into ruin-hills and hea[ps (of debris). The king] and the army of Assyria escaped (however) before the king (of Akkad) and [the army] of the king of Akkad. … In the month Ululu, the 20th day, Cyaxares and his army returned to his country. Afterwards, the king of A[kkad] … marched as far as Nisibis. Booty and gu-lu-tu of … and (of) the country Rusapu they brought to the king of Akkad, to Nineveh. [In the month] … Ashuruballit … sat down in Harran upon the throne to become king of Assyria. Till the month … [the king of Akkad stayed] in Nineveh. … From the 20th day of the month [Tashritu] the king [of Akkad] … in the same month of Tashritu in the town. …
Source: James B. Pritchard, ed., The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1971), 202–203. Reprinted with permission.
8. A NEO-BABYLONIAN INSCRIPTION DESCRIBING THE CONQUEST OF BABYLON BY CYRUS II THE GREAT
In 539 BCE Cyrus II (Kurush II), the king of Anshan in the present-day province of Fars in southern Iran, marched against Babylon. Cyrus had already conquered the kingdoms of Media and Lydia as well as vast territories in Central Asia. After these conquests Cyrus moved against Nabonidus, the ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Cyrus first attacked and captured the city of Opis on the banks of the Tigris not far from present-day Baghdad. Cyrus followe
d this victory by seizing Sippar (present-day Tell Abu Habbah near modern-day Baghdad), which surrendered without a battle. As Cyrus and his army descended on Babylon, Nabonidus fled, allowing the army of Cyrus to capture the city without resistance. After his army had secured the city, Cyrus entered Babylon. To emphasize the significance he attached to this victory, the Persian monarch took the title “King of Babylon,” the king of the land, and appointed governors. He also expressed his deference and respect for the city’s diverse communities and their gods. The following document, a Neo-Babylonian inscription, describes the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus II the Great.
… In the month of Tashritu, when Cyrus attacked the army of Akkad in Opis on the Tigris, the inhabitants of Akkad revolted, but he (Nabonidus) massacred the confused inhabitants. The 14th day, Sippar was seized without battle. Nabonidus fled. The 16th day, Gobryas (Ugbaru), the governor of Gutium and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle. Afterwards Nabonidus was arrested in Babylon when he returned (there). Till the end of the month, the shield(-carrying) Gutians were staying within Esagila (but) nobody carried arms in Esagila and its (pertinent) buildings, the correct time (for a ceremony) was not missed. In the month of Arahshamnu, the 3rd day, Cyrus entered Babylon, green twigs were spread in front of him—the state of “Peace” (šulmu) was imposed upon the city. Cyrus sent greetings to all Babylon, Gobryas, his governor, installed (sub-) governors. … From the month of Kislimu to the month of Addaru, the gods of Akkad which Nabonidus had made come down to Babylon … returned to their sacred cities. In the month of Arahshamnu, on the night of the 11th day, Gobryas died. In the month of [Arahshamnu, the … th day, the wi]fe of the king died. From the 27th day of Arahshamnu till the 3rd day of Nisanu a(n official) “weeping” was performed in Akkad, all the people (went around) with their hair disheveled. When, the 4th day, Cambyses, son of Cyrus, went to the temple the priest of Nebo who … the bull … they came (and) made the “weaving” by means of the handles and when [he le]d the image of Ne[bo … sp]ears and leather quivers, from … Nebo returned to Esagila, sheep-offerings in front of Bel and the god Mârbîti.
Source: James B. Pritchard, ed., The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1971), 204. Reprinted with permission.
9. EXCERPTS FROM THE CYRUS CYLINDER DISCOVERED IN BABYLON IN 1879
In 1879, the Assyrian-born archaeologist Hormuzd Rassam (1826–1910) discovered the Cyrus Cylinder in Babylon in southern Iraq within the sanctuary of the chief Babylonian god, Marduk. On this clay cylinder, which was inscribed in Babylonian cuneiform, Cyrus introduced himself as the son of Cambyses (Kambujiya), grandson of Cyrus (Kurush), and a descendant of Teispes (Chishpish), who were all kings of Anshan. Anshan was located in the present-day southern Iranian province of Fars. Cyrus also described his conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE and the capture of Nabonidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, a feat he claimed he had achieved with the aid of Marduk, the god of Babylon. Cyrus stated that he had entered Babylon in peace, declaring his respect for Marduk and expressing his commitment to allowing people to practice their religion freely. Today, the Cyrus clay cylinder is kept in the British Museum in London. Beginning in March 2013, the cylinder traveled to several cities in the United States, starting in Washington, D.C., and completing its journey in Los Angeles, home of the largest Persian-speaking community in North America.
12. … He took the hand of Cyrus, king of the city of Anshan, and called him by his name, proclaiming him aloud for the kingship over all of everything.
13. He made the land of Guti and all the Median troops prostrate themselves at his feet, while he shepherded in justice and righteousness the black-headed people
14. whom he had put under his care. Marduk, the great lord, who nurtures his people, saw with pleasure his fine deeds and true heart,
15. and ordered that he should go to Babylon. He had him take the road to Tintir (Babylon), and, like a friend and companion, he walked at his side.
16. His vast troops whose number, like the water in a river, could not be counted, were marching fully-armed at his side.
17. He had him enter without fighting or battle right into Shuanna; he saved his city Babylon from hardship. He handed over to him Nabonidus, the king who did not fear him.
18. All the people of Tintir, of all Sumer and Akkad, nobles and governors, bowed down before him and kissed his feet, rejoicing over his kingship and their faces shone.
19. The lord through whose help all were rescued from death and who saved them all from distress and hardship, they blessed him sweetly and praised his name.
20. I am Cyrus, king of the universe, the great king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world,
21. son of Cambyses, the great king, king of the city of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, the great king, ki[ng of the ci]ty of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, the great king, king of the city of Anshan,
22. the perpetual seed of kingship, whose reign Bel (Marduk) and Nabu love, and with whose kingship, to their joy, they concern themselves. When I went as harbinger of peace i[nt]o Babylon
23. I founded my sovereign residence within the palace amid celebration and rejoicing. Marduk, the great lord, bestowed on me as my destiny the great magnanimity of one who loves Babylon, and I every day sought him out in awe.
24. My vast troops were marching peaceably in Babylon, and the whole of [Sumer] and Akkad had nothing to fear.
25. I sought the safety of the city of Babylon and all its sanctuaries. As for the population of Babylon [… , w]ho as if without div[ine intention] had endured a yoke not decreed for them,
26. I soothed their weariness; I freed them from their bonds(?). Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced at [my good] deeds,
27. and he pronounced a sweet blessing over me, Cyrus, the king who fears him, and over Cambyses, the son [my] issue, [and over] all my troops,
28. that we might live happily in his presence, in well-being. At his exalted command, all kings who sit on thrones,
29. from every quarter, from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, those who inhabit [remote distric]ts (and) the kings of the land of Amurru who live in tents, all of them,
30. brought their weighty tribute into Shuanna, and kissed my feet. From [Shuanna] I sent back to their places to the city of Ashur and Susa,
31. Akkad, the land of Eshnunna, the city of Zamban, the city of Meturnu, Der, as far as the border of the land of Guti—the sanctuaries across the river Tigris—whose shrines had earlier become dilapidated,
32. the gods who lived therein, and made permanent sanctuaries for them. I collected together all of their people and returned them to their settlements,
33. and the gods of the land of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus—to the fury of the lord of the gods—had brought into Shuanna, at the command of Marduk, the great lord,
34. I returned them unharmed to their cells, in the sanctuaries that make them happy. May all the gods that I returned to their sanctuaries,
35. every day before Bel and Nabu, ask for a long life for me, and mention my good deeds, and say to Marduk, my lord, this: “Cyrus, the king who fears you, and Cambyses his son,
36. may they be the provisioners of our shrines until distant (?) days, and the population of Babylon call blessings on my kingship. I have enabled all the lands to live in peace.” Every day I increased by [… ge]ese, two ducks and ten pigeons the [former offerings] of geese, ducks and pigeons.
37. I strove to strengthen the defences of the wall Imgur-Enlil, the great wall of Babylon,
38. and [I completed] the quay of baked brick on the bank of the moat which an earlier king had bu[ilt but not com]pleted its work. …
Source: Robert William Rogers, trans., Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament (New York: Eaton and Mains, 1912).
10. CYRUS II THE GREAT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT: PASSAGES FROM THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND ISAIAH
After his conquest of Babylon i
n 539 BCE, Cyrus II the Great (Kurush) liberated approximately 60,000 Jews who had lived in captivity in Babylon since the sacking of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 587 BCE and allowed them to return to Palestine. He also issued an edict authorizing the repair and reconstruction of the dilapidated Jerusalem Temple. Some 40,000 Jews, accompanied by a Persian official specially commissioned to see that the royal orders were executed, left Babylon for Palestine in 537 BCE. Soon after they had returned, the Jewish community began the process of building the Jewish Temple in accordance with what was written in the Law of Moses. The Persian king Cyrus II the Great is recognized in the Old Testament as the Lord’s anointed. The two short excerpts from the book of Ezra and the book of Isaiah recount the actions of Cyrus regarding the Jewish population of Babylon after the Persian conquest of the city.
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Cyrus in the Book of Ezra (Ezra 1.1–2.3)
1
1 In the first year of King Cyrus of Persia, in order that the word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah might be accomplished, the Lord stirred up the spirit of King Cyrus of Persia so that he sent a herald throughout all his kingdom, and also in a written edict declared:
2 “Thus says King Cyrus of Persia: The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and he has charged me to build him a house at Jerusalem in Judah.
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