24. Jack K. Bauer, Zachary Taylor: Soldier, Planter, Statesman of the Old Southwest (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993); Elbert B. Smith, The Presidencies of Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988).
25. Benson Lee Grayson, The Unknown President: The Administration of Millard Fillmore (Latham MD: University Press of America, 1981).
26. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 135.
27. Congressional Resolution, January 10, 1849, Lincoln Works, 2:20–22.
28. Congressional Resolution, January 10, 1849, Lincoln Works, 2:20–22.
29. Merrill D. Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 449–76; Mark J. Stegmaier, Texas, New Mexico, and the Compromise of 1850: Boundary Dispute and Section Crisis (Kent OH: Kent State University Press, 1996); John C. Waugh, On the Brink of Civil War: The Compromise of 1850 and How It Changed the Course of American History (Wilmington DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003).
30. Potter, Impending Crisis, 128.
31. Stanley W. Campbell, The Slave Catchers: Enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850–1860 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970), 207.
32. Larry Gara, The Liberty Line: The Legend of the Underground Railroad (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1961). For an overview on estimates, see Potter, Impending Crisis, 135–37.
33. Don E. Fehrenbacher, Prelude to Greatness: Lincoln in the 1850s (Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, 1962).
34. Michael Burlingame, The Inner World of Abraham Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 57–72.
35. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 159–60.
36. Donald, Lincoln, 160.
37. Abraham Lincoln to Williamson Durley, October 3, 1845, Lincoln Writings, 284–85.
38. Abraham Lincoln to Williamson Durley, October 3, 1845, Lincoln Writings, 285–86.
39. Jean H. Baker, Affairs of Party: The Political Culture of Northern Democrats in the Mid-nineteenth Century (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
40. Roy F. Nichols, Franklin Pierce: Young Hickory of the Granite Hills (Norwalk CT: Easton Press, 1988); Larry Gara, The Presidency of Franklin Pierce (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991).
41. Michael F. Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
42. Potter, Impending Crisis, 241–42.
43. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Jonathan A. Glickstein, American Exceptionalism, American Anxiety: Wages, Competition, and Degraded Labor in the Antebellum United States (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2002).
4. BLEEDING KANSAS
1. George Milton, The Eve of Conflict: Stephen A. Douglas and the Needless War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1934); Robert W. Johannsen, Stephen A Douglas (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973); William S. McFeely, Frederick Douglass (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991).
2. James C. Malin, The Nebraska Question, 1852–1854 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1953).
3. Speech at Chicago, July 10, 1858, Lincoln Writings, 442.
4. Speech at Peoria, Illinois, in Reply to Senator Douglas, October 16, 1854, Lincoln Writings, 338–85.
5. Matthew Pinsker, “Senator Abraham Lincoln,” Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 14 (Summer 1993): 1–21.
6. Abraham Lincoln to E. B. Washburne, February 9, 1855, Lincoln Writings, 385–87.
7. James A. Rawley, Race and Politics: “Bleeding Kansas” and the Coming of the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); Nicole Etcheson, Bleeding Kansas: Contested Liberty in the Civil War Era (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004).
8. Rawley, Race and Politics, 81.
9. Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 686; David M. Potter, The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (New York: Harper and Row, 1976), 200–201.
10. David Donald, Charles Sumner and the Coming of the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); T. Lloyd Bentsen, The Caning of Senator Sumner (Belmont CA: Wadsworth/Thomas Learning, 2004).
11. William Marcy to Pierre Soulé, April 3, 1854, in Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Inter-American Affairs, 1831–1860, ed. William R. Manning, 12 vols. (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1932–39), 11:175–76.
12. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relation to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 129.
13. Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973); Charles H. Brown, Agents of Manifest Destiny: The Lives and Times of the Filibusters (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Robert E. May, Manifest Destiny’s Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).
14. Albert Carr, The World and William Walker (New York: Harper and Row, 1963); Frederic Rosengarten, Freebooters Must Die!: The Life and Death of William Walker (Wayne PA: Haverford House, 1976).
15. James D. Richardson, ed., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 20 vols. (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1897–1917), 7:2731–32.
16. Robert E. May, John A. Quitman: Old South Crusader (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985).
17. Abraham Lincoln to Joshua Speed, August 24, 1855, Lincoln Works, 2:323.
18. William Gienapp, The Origins of the Republican Party (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James D. Bilotta, Race and the Republican Party, 1848–1865 (New York: Peter Lang, 1992); Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Robert Engs and Randall Miller, eds., The Birth of the Grand Old Party: The Republicans’ First Generation (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002).
19. Andrew Rolle, John Charles Frémont: Character as Destiny (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); John Charles Frémont, Memoirs of My Life (New York: Cooper Square Press, 2001).
20. Speech at Springfield, June 26,1857, Lincoln Writings, 422, 427.
21. James M. McPherson, The Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 162.
5. DRED SCOTT AND HARPERS FERRY
1. Frederick Binder, James Buchanan and the American Empire (Selinsgrove PA: Susquehanna University Press, 1994); Michael J. Birkner, ed., James Buchanan and the Political Crisis of the 1850s (Selinsgrove PA: Susquehanna University Press, 1996); Jean H. Baker, James Buchanan (New York: Henry Holt, 2004).
2. Philip Klein, President James Buchanan (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962); Elbert B. Smith, The Presidency of James Buchanan (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1975).
3. Stanley Kutler, ed., The Dred Scott Decision: Law or Politics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967); Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978); Paul Finkelman, Dred Scott v. Sandford: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 1997).
4. Dred Scott v. John F. A. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 Howard) 399–454.
5. Speech at Springfield, Illinois, June 26, 1847, Lincoln Works, 2:401.
6. Speech at Springfield, Illinois, June 26, 1857, Lincoln Works, 2:401.
7. For the best overview, see Kenneth M. Stampp, America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
8. Fawn M. Brodie, No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith, the Mormon Prophet (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1945); Leonard J. Arrington and Davis Bitton, The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-Day Saints (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1979); Jan
Shipps, Mormonism: The Story of a New Religious Tradition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Leonard J. Arrington, Brigham Young: American Moses (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
9. Edward L. Lyman, Political Deliverance: The Mormon Quest for Utah Statehood (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
10. Juanita Brooks, The Mountain Meadows Massacre (Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, 1950); Norman F. Furniss, The Mormon Conflict, 1850–1859 (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1960); William Wise, The Massacre at Mountain Meadows: An American Legend and a Monumental Crime (New York: Crowell, 1976).
11. George W. Van Vleck, The Panic of 1857 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943); Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957); James L. Huston, The Panic of 1857 and the Coming of the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987).
12. John W. Forney, Anecdotes of Public Men (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1873), 2:179.
13. “A House Divided,” June 16, 1858, Lincoln Works, 2:461–62.
14. Abraham Lincoln to Stephen Douglas, July 24, 29, 31, 1858, Lincoln Writings, 457–58, 458–60, 460.
For overviews of the struggle between Lincoln and Douglas, see Allen Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln: Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859 (New York: Charles Scribners’ Sons, 1950); Roy Morris, The Long Pursuit: Abraham Lincoln’s Thirty-Year Struggle with Stephen Douglas for the Heart and Soul of America (New York: HarperCollins, 2008).
For the debates, see Harry E. Pratt, The Great Debates of 1858 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1956); Robert W. Johannsen, The Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965); Richard Allen Heckman, Lincoln vs. Douglas: The Great Debates Campaign (Washington DC: Public Affairs Press, 1967); Harry Jaffa, The Crisis of the House Divided: An Interpretation of the Issues in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); David Zarefsky, Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Harold Holzer, ed., The Lincoln-Douglas Debates: The First Complete, Unexpurgated Text (New York: Harper Collins, 1993).
15. Pratt, Great Debates of 1858, 5.
16. Freeport Debate, August 27, 1858, Lincoln Works, 3:43.
17. Johannsen, Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 22–36.
18. George M. Frederickson, “A Man but Not a Brother: Abraham Lincoln and Racial Equality,” Journal of Southern History 41 (February 1975): 39–58; Don E. Fehrenbacher, “Only His Stepchildren,” in Lincoln in Text and Context: Collected Essays, ed. Don E. Fehrenbacher (Palo Alto CA: Stanford University Press, 1987), 95–112; George Stickler, The Racial Attitudes of American Presidents from Abraham Lincoln to Theodore Roosevelt (Garden City NY: Doubleday), 1971.
19. Speech at Springfield, July 17, 1858, Lincoln Writings, 456.
20. Johannsen, Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 256.
21. Reply at Alton, October 15, 1858, Lincoln Writings, 530.
22. Fragment on Slavery, July 1, 1854, Lincoln Works, 2:222–23.
23. Speech at Springfield, June 26, 1857, Lincoln Works, 2:405–6.
24. Michael Vorenberg, “Abraham Lincoln and the Politics of Black Colonization,” Journal of Abraham Lincoln 14 (Summer 1993): 23–45.
25. Opening Speech at Charleston, Illinois, September 18, 1858, Lincoln Works, 2:404–5.
26. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 228.
27. Abraham Lincoln to Anson Henry, November 19, 1858, Lincoln Works, 3:339.
28. Avery O. Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1953); Ronald T. Takaki, A Pro-slavery Crusade: The Agitation to Reopen the African Slave Trade (New York: Free Press, 1971); John McCardell, The Idea of a Southern Nation: Southern Nationalists and Southern Nationalism, 1830–1860 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979); Drew Gilpin Faust, ed., The Ideology of Slavery: Pro-slavery Thought in the Antebellum South, 1830–1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981); Larry E. Tise, Proslavery: A History of the Defense of Slavery in America, 1701–1840 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987); Eric Walther, The Fire-Eaters (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992); Elizabeth Moss, Domestic Novelists in the Old South: Defenders of Southern Culture (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992); Mitchell Snay, The Gospel of Disunion: Religion and Separatism in the Antebellum South (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); William C. Davis, Rhett: The Turbulent Life and Times of a Fire-Eater (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001); Paul Finkelman, Defending Slavery: Proslavery Thought in the Old South (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 2003); Lorman A. Ratner and Dwight L. Teeter, Fanatics and Fire-Eaters: Newspapers and the Coming of the Civil War (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Michael O’Brien, Conjectures of Order: Intellectual Life and the American South, 1810–1860, 2 vols. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Adam L. Tate, Conservatism and Southern Intellectuals, 1789–1861: Liberty, Tradition, and the Good Society (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005); Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, The Mind of the Master Class: History and Faith in the Southern Slaveholders’ Worldview (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
29. Hinton Rowan Helper, The Impending Crisis of the South: How to Meet It (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); David Brown, Southern Outcast: Hinton Rowan Helper and the Impending Crisis (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006).
30. Elizabeth R. Varon, Disunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 294–95.
31. Stephen B. Oates, To Purge This Land with Blood: A Biography of John Brown (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Benjamin Quarles, Allies for Freedom: Blacks and John Brown (New York: Oxford University Press,1974); Jeffrey S. Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators: John Brown, the Secret Six, and a Theory of Slave Violence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982); John Stauffer and Zoe Trodd, eds., Meteor of War: The John Brown Story (Maplecrest NY: Brandywine Press, 2004); David S. Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights (New York: Alfred Knopf, 2005).
32. Paul Finkelman, ed., His Soul Goes Marching ON: The Responses to John Brown and the Harpers Ferry Raid (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1995); Peggy A. Russo and Paul Finkelman, eds., The Terrible Swift Sword: The Legacy of John Brown (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2005).
33. Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 315.
34. Speech at Leavenworth, Kansas, December 3, 1859, Lincoln Works, 3:496.
35. Richmond (VA) Enquirer, October 25, 1859.
6. THE ELECTION
1. For the following figures and descriptions, see The United States on the Eve of the Civil War as Described by the 1860 Census (Washington DC: U.S. Civil War Centennial Commission, 1963); Statistical History of the United States from Colonial Times to the Present (Stamford CT: Fairfield, 1965); George Rogers Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1951).
2. Roger Ransom, Conflict and Compromise: The Political Economy of Slavery, Emancipation, and the American Civil War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 62, 76, 46.
3. Donald R. Adams, “Prices and Wages,” in The Encyclopedia of American Economic History, ed. Glenn Porter, 3 vols. (New York: Scribner, 1980), 1:234. For the best works on these revolutions, see Douglass North, Economic Growth in the United States, 1790–1860 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966); Thomas Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialization in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); Walter Licht, Industrializing America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1995); Taylor, Transportation Revolution; John Stover, American Railroads (
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961); Albert Fishlow, American Railroads and the Transformation of the Antebellum Economy (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1965); Carter Goodrich et al., Canals and American Economic Development (Port Washington NY: Kennikat Press, 1972).
4. Stuart Bruchey, Enterprise: The Dynamic Economy of a Free People (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 251.
5. Louis Hacker, Rudolf Modley, and George Taylor, The United States: A Graphic History (New York: Modern Age Books, 1937).
6. Bruchey, Enterprise, 228, 238–53; Ransom, Conflict and Compromise, 62, 65, 70.
7. Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 41, 42, 52.
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