by Jane Austen
A highly decorated cabinet from the early eighteenth century, with numerous drawers or compartments inside.
[From Harold Eberlein, The Practical Book of Period Furniture (Philadelphia, 1914), p. 82]
[List of Illustrations]
41. “Japan” refers to a surface varnish used on furniture or other items. In the seventeenth century, lacquered pieces from Asia became fashionable in Europe; sometimes whole pieces would be imported, or sometimes only wooden panels that could be attached to pieces made in Europe. Japanned work, so called because of its frequent origin in Japan, was one of the principal lacquering styles; it usually featured a black background overlaid with a gilded pattern. By the late seventeenth century furniture manufacturers in England were also producing varnished pieces imitating imported Japan: after that the term could be applied to them as well as pieces actually from Asia. Cabinets, usually on a carved gilt stand, were the principal types of furniture made in this manner, which continued to be sought after through much of the eighteenth century, though toward the end the style declined in favor of others.
42. speak: signify, indicate.
43. Pieces of furniture, especially cabinets and desks, often had special locked drawers or compartments within them.
A Japanned chest of drawers from the mid-eighteenth century.
[From Esther Singleton, The Furniture of our Forefathers (New York, 1916), p. 54]
[List of Illustrations]
44. The quoted words are Catherine’s reflections to herself. Jane Austen sometimes switches to such direct quotation of a character’s inner thoughts, as she did earlier in this scene, though usually she does not make the switch in the middle of a sentence.
45. Her extreme emotional agitation at every step is exactly like that of the heroines of Ann Radcliffe’s novels, which generate terror more by their vivid depictions of the heroine’s feelings of fear and suspense than by their description of actual events (which frequently turn out to be less awful than anticipated).
46. Catherine is likely using a tallow candle, a candle of modest quality made from animal fat that would be used for tasks, like preparing for bed, that did not require strong illumination. One problem with tallow candles was that, as they diminished through burning and the wick correspondingly extended further up, parts of the extended wick that were only partially burned blocked the light from the flame. Snuffing was the process whereby those burned parts, called the snuff, were periodically severed to enable the candle to shine more brightly. Special scissors existed for this purpose. It required care and precision, and Catherine, in her haste, has cut too low and extinguished the flame itself.
47. Lamps, powered by oil, were also in use at this time. They gave stronger light than candles, but were expensive. Their brightness, and their tendency to go out completely, rather than flicker as candles might, would make the effect of their extinction particularly impressive.
48. Tallow candles could be rekindled by blowing on them, if some spark remained in the wick.
49. clothes: bedclothes, i.e., sheets and other coverings on the bed.
50. abroad: outside the house.
51. terrific: dreadful, terrifying.
52. Most beds, especially those of the affluent, had tall posts supporting a canopy above and curtains on the sides, which would be closed at night. These hangings helped keep the bed warm as the fire, the only source of heat, died away during the night.
53. In these last sentences of the chapter, Austen evokes a situation of intense terror, providing her own potent imitation of the effects produced in a Gothic novel, before she deflates it with her final phrase.
A bed with curtains (early eighteenth century).
[From Harold Eberlein, The Practical Book of Period Furniture (Philadelphia, 1914), p. 120]
[List of Illustrations]
VOLUME II, CHAPTER VII
1. Housemaids, the most numerous of all servants, would be responsible for cleaning the house as well as other basic tasks.
2. The maid has lit the fire earlier, since the previous night’s fire would be long dead, and the room would have become much colder during the night. Servants would usually rise much earlier than their employers to engage in such preparatory tasks, though only in wealthy homes would this extend to lighting a fire in every occupied bedroom. In a letter written while staying with her brother, the owner of a grand estate, Jane Austen remarks of her situation at the outset of the day: “very snug, in my own room, lovely morng, excellent fire, fancy me” (Nov. 6, 1813).
3. The coarseness of the characters indicates this is a poorer person’s writing. Most people then had some literacy, but education differed greatly according to social rank and wealth, and good penmanship was an important part of formal education.
4. Many people sent out their washing, or laundry, to a washerwoman, who would draw up a list of items washed as well as the charges. Grander homes had their own laundry facilities, and it is likely the Tilneys, and anyone staying with them, would use those. But the former guest whose servant left this bill—he is identified toward the end of the novel (this page)—had presumably been traveling previously at a place where he needed to send out his dirty clothes.
5. waistcoats: vests.
6. “Letters” here means postage, which was paid by the recipient of the letter; a servant would normally accept his master’s letters, and this one has drawn up a bill to be reimbursed for postage and other items he purchased. Hair powder was commonly worn by gentlemen during the eighteenth century, though it was beginning to go out of fashion at this point. “Shoe-strings” are shoelaces, found in some shoes of the time. “Breeches-ball” means soap, which often came in the form of a ball, for breeches, the cropped pants worn by gentlemen, extending from the waist to just below the knee (poorer men wore full-length trousers). Because washing them could be very hard on clothes, special materials or techniques were used for more expensive or delicate fabrics.
7. cramp: crabbed, hard to decipher.
8. A farrier was someone who shoed and treated horses. In this case he has applied a poultice, a soft substance used as an emollient, to the wound of a chestnut mare.
9. imposed on: deceived.
10. This is the second incident in which Catherine suffers embarrassment from indulging in her Gothic fancies. It is more serious than the first (her eager examination of the chest); the next will be more serious yet.
11. Upper-class homes often had a separate room for breakfast. In some cases, as in that of the Bennet family in Pride and Prejudice, it could also serve as a sitting or living room. In this case no other activities are ever described as occurring in the room; this house may be large enough that the Tilneys can dispense with such dual usage. The General’s love of eating may also incline him to give special priority to rooms for meals.
A man of the time with a powdered head.
[From Elisabeth McClellan, Historic Dress in America, 1800–1870 (Philadelphia, 1910), p. 365]
[List of Illustrations]
12. Hyacinths, which were introduced into Europe in the sixteenth century, became very popular during the eighteenth. One reason was that modifications of the species had produced, by the 1750s, a great variety of types in different colors, as well as an increase in the number of bells, or flowers, on each plant. Further impetus was provided by a new technique of raising them in glass containers filled with water, which allowed people to watch them grow. This burgeoning interest, seen especially at the British and French courts (the latter of which bought thousands every year), led to the manufacture of special containers, either of glass or ceramic, for displaying them in the home. Hyacinths’ suitability for inside cultivation—which is why Catherine sees them in the breakfast parlor and why Henry shortly calls love of them domestic—also fit with this period’s tendency to decorate the home with fresh flowers, instead of confining them to the garden, as had usually been the case in previous centuries.
13. The routines of genteel women kept them mostly
indoors, and exercise, principally in the form of outdoor walks, was recommended as a valuable aid to their health.
14. Roses, long one of the most treasured of all flowers, would be cultivated in outdoor gardens, and hence be a potential lure to exercise.
15. Conduct books of the time recommended that women be “teachable,” meaning docile or tractable, in part because of women’s subordinate position in marriage. Henry is being ironic in applying the idea to something as trivial as love of a flower.
16. sympathetic: congenial, fitting.
17. The General is hinting that it would be more fitting if she rose earlier, and thus let them begin breakfast earlier.
18. A breakfast set was a set of dishes used specifically for breakfast. Those who could afford it had distinct types of dishware for different mealtimes and occasions.
19. neat: of an elegant form; well made and proportioned.
20. Dresden and Sêve, or Sèvres, represent the leading types of china or porcelain manufactured from clay in Europe at the time. For centuries porcelain was made only in China and had to be imported into Europe. But in the early eighteenth century, in the German kingdom of Saxony, whose capital was Dresden, the royal factories in the nearby town of Meissen discovered the secret of making porcelain. Meissen porcelain soon attained tremendous success throughout Europe, and inspired a number of imitations, most notably the products of the French king’s factory at Sèvres, which was founded in the mid-eighteenth century and came to surpass Meissen as the favorite of connoisseurs. A number of manufacturers also arose in England, but, lacking royal patronage, they focused on less expensive ceramics, either earthenware or stoneware, meant for broader consumption. The leading center was Stafford, which contained several firms, including Wedgwood. During the years just before and after 1800, right around the time this novel was written, some firms there developed a new type of porcelain, called bone china from the large amount of ground bones in it, that could be produced less expensively than other porcelains and quickly came to dominate the British market. Hence General Tilney, in opting for English china, is demonstrating his close attention to the latest fashions. His preference for British over European manufacturers may also be motivated by reasons of economy, ones he avoids acknowledging by justifying his preference on grounds of patriotism.
21. Ceramic manufacturers were making rapid progress during this period, but it was not so rapid that two years would render a set outmoded. The General is pretending anxiety in order to emphasize how recent his purchase actually is.
22. He would select a set as a gift for his son’s new bride; many newly married couples bought or received new sets of china as well as other furnishings for the home. The rest of the party present here would understand he alludes to Catherine herself, just as he does in the next paragraph when suggesting that Henry’s own home will now feel somber in comparison with Northanger. The group of breakfasters probably includes Eleanor, who could have entered with her father; just below she, her father, and Catherine are described as “re-entering the breakfast-room.”
23. attended: waited.
24. Men, especially young men, sometimes traveled directly on horseback rather than in a carriage.
25. heavy: severe.
26. in the same aspect: facing the same direction. A kitchen garden would grow food and therefore benefit from a southward orientation.
27. For more on walls around gardens, see below, note 42. This passage hints at the General’s interest in garden cultivation, which will be expanded upon below.
28. The General controls the right to appoint someone to the living, or clerical position. Such a patron was responsible for the condition of the clerical residence; the General’s efforts on behalf of his son’s home are later suggested (note 37).
29. He means that with only two children besides his eldest child (Frederick) to provide with inheritances, he would be in a position to support Henry sufficiently to eliminate the need for him to work.
30. By “private man” the General means a man who does not occupy an important public position. Extremely wealthy men, especially if titled aristocrats, were expected to run for Parliament and participate actively in public affairs, and they frequently did; thus General Tilney excludes them from the comparison. His idea of the need for professions was far from universal among the genteel classes: most men of the time who, like his eldest son, were going to inherit a substantial landed estate, would not also pursue a profession. The General’s encouragement of work may reflect his own active nature, which would make him despise idleness and may be why he himself pursued an army career. He may also be motivated by the pleasure-loving habits of his son, and by his knowledge that, given the General’s own vigor, it may be a long time before Frederick will inherit the estate and all the responsibilities that go with it; thus he could perceive a strong danger of his son’s leading a very irresponsible and dissipated life if he lacked employment. A final incentive would be the status conferred by the army, the most prestigious of all professions. Other passages indicate that the Tilneys associate primarily with titled families; being addressed as “General,” while not as good as “Lord” or “Sir,” is distinctly superior to “Mr.,” and General Tilney would naturally appreciate the benefits he has enjoyed from this and wish for the same distinction in his son.
31. A netting box contained tools for netting (see note 15). Such boxes could be exquisite pieces in their own right.
32. Shrubberies were typical features of landscaped grounds. They were usually planted in complex, often irregular patterns, and contained gravel walkways as well as places to sit.
33. Curtsying is a formal gesture, one Catherine makes no place else in the novel. She may be influenced by General Tilney’s own formality.
34. Men, like women, almost always wore hats outdoors.
35. Miss Tilney’s confusion or discomfiture results from her knowledge that her father is not actually acceding to his guest’s wishes, but using a polite pretense of this in order to follow his own inclination. She has presumably experienced such conduct from her father on many other occasions.
36. Catherine is gradually perceiving the unpleasant aspects of her host’s character. But rather than drawing the obvious conclusion, that beneath his elaborately polite manners he is in fact a dictatorial and short-tempered man, she attempts to discover some hidden meaning.
37. She earlier noticed the courtyard, or quadrangle, when going to her room, but could not see it well because it was dark.
38. The Gothic ornaments on the outside have been maintained, even as much of the inside has been modernized. The General earlier spoke of preserving the Gothic windows, but they have also been updated with modern glass (see this page and this page). This was a common procedure, for a growing interest in Gothic architecture, along with respect for the traditions of a building, inspired a wish to conserve such external features, even if it did not override the desire to take advantage of more recent comforts and conveniences inside.
39. A plantation is a wood of planted trees, as opposed to the “old” trees that have grown up naturally over the centuries. Plantations were often created for the purpose of harvesting timber as well as for their shade or beauty.
A building amid trees, with plantations in the distance.
[From Siegel, Descriptions pittoresques de jardins du goût le plus moderne (Leipzig, 1802), Plate IIA]
[List of Illustrations]
40. The “park” is the portion of the landscaped grounds that has been left in the form of lawns or woods. In contrast to gardens or shrubberies, parks would still look natural, even though in many cases the various features of parks were substantially altered to create a more pleasing appearance.
41. The yard attached to Mr. Morland’s church would be considered part of his domain as clergyman.
42. Hothouses, or greenhouses, were often placed in gardens, and allowed people to cultivate plants, especially flowers or fruit, that could not otherwise grow in the cool
English climate. The eighteenth century witnessed a huge increase in the plant species imported from the rest of the world, especially from North America and tropical locations. Hothouses, in addition to being covered in glass to trap heat from the sun, were directly heated in the winter by fires. The innumerable walls Catherine also notices in the gardens would serve the same purpose in a milder fashion, for plants within an enclosure would be more protected from the cold and wind, especially if placed near the walls, whose bricks could be heated to dispel the cold further. Plants grown within walls could therefore begin blooming earlier in the spring, and could continue later in the year.
43. hobby-horse: favorite pursuit or pastime. The word appears frequently in one of the best-known novels of the eighteenth century, Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy (1761).
Hothouses to promote the growth of fruit.
[From Humphrey Repton and J. C. Loudon, The Landscape Gardening and the Landscape Architecture of the late Humphrey Repton, Esq. (London, 1840), p. 552]
[List of Illustrations]
44. A pinery is where pineapples would be grown. Pineapples had first begun to be cultivated in England toward the end of the seventeenth century, though they remained rare until the second half of the eighteenth. As tropical fruits, they had to be grown in hothouses. A modest pinery could be expected to produce around a hundred pineapples per year.
45. Succession houses were special hothouses placed next to each other and kept at different, carefully graded temperatures. Delicate plants grown in the warmest structures would be moved to progressively less warm buildings in order to prepare them for being transplanted outdoors. Only someone who raised plants on a major scale would have succession houses, which is why the General, eager to compare himself with others, asks about them rather than simply about hothouses.
