The teams at Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have consistently aided me with my work over the past two decades, and have been a shining example to me of courage and persistence: Emma Daly; Peter Bouekart; Anna Neistat; Ole Solvang; Erin Evins; Donatella Rovera; Steve Cranshaw; Sevag Kechichian; Ken Roth; Adam Coogle; Liesl Gernholtz; Lama Fakih; Tom Porteous; Corinne Dufka; Priyanka Motaparthy.
At the New York Times I should like to thank Michael Slackman, Cynthia Latimer, Kyle Crichton, Susan Lehman, Mark Thompson and Joe Kahn.
My tribe: Ariane Quentier; Mariann Wenckheim; Alba Arikha; Christopher Silvester; Stelios Kalamotusis; Charlotte Fraser; Catherine Rubin Kermogant; Kati Marton; Mimi and Max Mulhern; Anna Sessau; John Harrison; Susan Steele; Robert Pay; Susannah and Tonio Weiss; Leslie Camhi; Bettina von Hase; Gloria Orrigi; Adam Phillips; Wendell Steavenson.
Special thanks to my web designer and sister, Isabel Villavechia. And much love to AJ and Holly, and Baroness Arminka Helic.
Bénédicte de Roquefeuil and Diana de Gunzburg offered me their beautiful homes in Brittany and Normandy to write. Ashley and Cuotie Malle let me lie on a hammock in Provence and do nothing but read and think before another worrying trip to the region, alone. Thank you.
The GMAP team at Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy – my classmates and professors, who inspired me with their brilliance. Special thanks to Dean Deborah Nutter and Mariana Stoyancheva. Mohamedou Mahmoud and Ambassador Christian Dussey at the Geneva Center for Security Policy for the Fellowship.
Bruce Shapiro, Frank Ochberg and all my fellow Ochberg Fellows 2015 at the Dart Center, Columbia University, who gave me the chance to examine war and trauma on a deeper level.
The Syria negotiators, Staffan de Mistura and Lakhdar Brahimi, who gave me their time and wisdom, and also listened to my own thoughts on Syria. Michael Contet, at the Office of the Special Envoy for Syria, was an efficient and capable facilitator. Juliette Touma was always generous with her time.
At home, my son Luca Costantino Girodon – my heart’s treasure – and his father, Bruno Girodon, who put up with my many voyages. My mother, Kathryn di Giovanni, who worried about me all the time, but knew better than to say anything. My sister Judith and my niece Janine Cifaretto for their friendship. My godchildren, Carter Spyrka and Deni Jokic. My brothers, Robert and Vincent. And Constance Griffin, my true heart.
And thanks to LR, who inspired me to start this project in 2011, and gave support along the way.
And to the memory of my colleagues, Steve Sotloff; Jim Foley; Marie Colvin. And my late brothers, Richard and Joseph di Giovanni. I miss you every single day.
Chronology
Early History: Warring Empires
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3rd millennium BC–539 BC The area that is modern-day Syria was occupied successively by Sumerians, Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians and Babylonians. The Assyrian Empire rose to supremacy in the 15th century BC and ruled for almost a thousand years.
539–64 BC The Persians, Alexander the Great and the Seleucid Empire ruled parts of Syria as part of their empires.
64 BC–6th century AD Roman General Pompey the Great captured Antioch and turned Syria into a Roman province. Its prosperity made it one of the most important parts of the empire. After the decline of Rome, Syria became part of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire.
7th century AD Muslim Arabs, led by Khalid ibn al-Walid, conquered Syria, which became part of the Islamic Empire. The Umayyad dynasty, then rulers of the Islamic Empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus, and divided Syria into four districts: Damascus, Homs, Palestine and Jordan. There was toleration of Christians in this era and several held government posts.
750–969 The Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty, which moved the capital to Baghdad. In the Ikhshidid Empire, the court of Ali Saif al-Daula was a centre of culture, thanks to its nurturing of Arabic literature.
969–1516 Syria was occupied by invading waves of Byzantines, Turks, Egyptians and briefly Mongols. The Christian population suffered persecution.
1516–1918 The Ottoman Empire conquered Syria after defeating the Mamluks near Aleppo, and Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire, reorganized into one large province.
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20th Century: Consolidation of the Syrian Nation
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1916–18 During the First World War, in the Sykes-Picot Agreement, the British and French secretly agreed on the post-war division of the Ottoman Empire into respective zones of influence. In 1918 Arab and British troops advanced into Syria and captured Damascus and Aleppo. Syria became a League of Nations mandate under French control (with Lebanon). The country was divided into three autonomous regions by the French, with separate areas for the Alawites on the coast and the Druze in the south.
1925–7 Great Syrian Revolt. Led by Sultan al-Atrash in the Druze Mountains, the nationalist movement spread across the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. The revolt saw fierce battles between rebel and French forces in Damascus, Homs and Hama.
1936–46 Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence; France agreed to Syrian independence in principle, but maintained French military and economic dominance. During the Second World War, Syria came under the control of Vichy France, but in 1941 British and Free French Forces occupied the country in the Syria-Lebanon campaign in July. Syrian independence was declared, but not immediately ratified. Finally in 1946 the Syrian Arab Republic was officially recognized as an independent republic.
1946–58 Skirmishes with Israel, then newly established, frequent changes of government and coups d’état finally ended with a merging of Egypt and Syria in 1958 under the title of United Arab Republic.
1961–70 Syria re-established independence from Egypt in 1961. Rival elements of the Ba’ath party fought for supremacy until Hafez al-Assad, in a bloodless coup, took control in 1970 and began the Assad family’s domination of Syria. At this point a new Syrian constitution was drafted and ratified under the strong guidance of the new president, defining Syria as a secular socialist state with Islam recognized as the majority religion, and asserting that freedom is a sacred right and democracy is the ideal form of government.
1973–81 Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War by launching a surprise attack on Israel, reigniting years of conflict. Syrian troops also intervened in Lebanon’s civil war in 1976 and remained there for 30 years.
1982–94 Syrian troops continued to occupy Lebanon and to carry out skirmishes with Israel. In 1994 the Assad dynasty was thrown into chaos when Hafez al-Assad’s eldest son, Bassel al-Assad, who had been likely to succeed his father, was killed in a car accident.
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Early 21st Century: Growing Discontent
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2000–1 President Hafez al-Assad died in 2000 after 30 years in power. Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the minimum age of the President from 40 years to 34, which allowed Hafez al-Assad’s son Bashar to take over, and he became President after a referendum in which he ran unopposed. In November 2000, Assad called for the release of some 600 political prisoners. The ‘Damascus Spring’ ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of leading activists who had called for democratic elections.
2002–5 The United States claimed Damascus was acquiring weapons of mass destruction and included Syria in a list of states that they said made up an ‘axis of evil’. The US imposed economic sanctions on Syria over what it called its support for terrorism and failure to stop militants entering Iraq.
2005– 10 Renewed opposition activity led to long jail terms for activists. However, diplomatic relations with other countries, including the US, European Union and Iraq, were restored. Discussions were held with Israel regarding a peace treaty, with Turkey as mediator. The bulk of the Syrian forces withdrew from Lebanon.
2010–11 The thaw in diplomatic relations with the West came to an abrupt end as the US renewed sanctions against Syria, saying that it supported terrorist groups, sought w
eapons of mass destruction and had provided Lebanon’s Hezbollah with Scud missiles in violation of UN resolutions.
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The Civil War
2011: Protests and Civil Uprising
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Inside Syria International Reaction
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January –
mid-March A self-immolation in the north, plus small-scale demonstrations and protests.
March A dozen teenagers are violently arrested in Daraa for painting anti-regime graffiti. There are calls for a ‘Day of Rage’ and ‘Day of Dignity’.
Mass protests in Damascus and Aleppo soon spread to other cities. Security forces open fire and kill protesters, inciting further unrest.
Assad’s first speech about the conflict on 30 March blames foreign conspirators.
April Protests continue and spread. Assad announces conciliatory measures.
On 22 April the ‘Great Friday’ protest leads to over 100 people killed. Protesters call for the downfall of the regime.
The crackdown strengthens. Hundreds are killed as the army launches military attacks on towns and besieges Daraa. International media begins to refer to the protests as an ‘uprising’.
The US and France condemn the crackdown and call for reform.
May The government sends tanks into Homs, Daraa and areas of Damascus.
Reports emerge of Iran providing assistance to quell the uprising.
There are over 1,100 civilian deaths during the month. The US imposes sanctions on Assad for human rights abuses. The EU implements an arms embargo, asset freeze and travel ban on senior officials.
June 50,000 protest in Hama; 34 are killed. Government cuts off internet access.
Armed rebellion in the north leaves 120 soldiers dead. More than 10,000 civilians flee from the north to Turkey.
Opposition activists establish their own ‘National Council’.
Assad is still blaming ‘foreign conspiracies’, ‘vandals’ and terrorists for the unrest. The Arab League openly condemns the regime’s violent crackdown.
July Protests continue to increase and spread.
Free Syrian Army (FSA) is formed by seven defecting officers.
Siege of Hama and ‘Ramadan massacre’: 136 killed in the bloodiest day of uprising to date.
According to a former Assad regime security official, Syrian intelligence agencies deliberately released Islamist militants from prison between July and October to subvert the peaceful uprising and ignite a violent rebellion. The project was overseen by the General Security Directorate, one of the most important and most feared Syrian organizations. Inmates from Saidnaya prison, 50 km north of Damascus, went on to become prominent members of insurgent groups. See The National, 21 January 2014. US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton condemns the regime. US says Assad has lost his legitimacy.
August Formation of the Syrian National Council in Istanbul, a coalition of groups opposed to Assad based outside and within the country. This later becomes part of the Syrian National Coalition. Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Kuwait recall their ambassadors. The UK, US, EU and others demand that Assad steps down. US bans oil imports from Syria.
The UN condemns human rights violations and the use of force against civilians.
September The EU bans oil imports from Syria.
Ambassadors from US, EU, UK, Japan and Canada take part in a vigil supporting the protests.
Turkey, Assad’s former ally, cuts contact with Syrian authorities.
October Siege of Homs. Government troops shell the city. UN Security Council (UNSC) attempts to pass a resolution condemning Assad’s government and issuing sanctions. Russia and China veto it. UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, says the crisis shows signs of ‘descending into an armed struggle’.
November FSA attacks a military base near Damascus in the highest-profile assault yet.
Pro-government Syrians attack foreign embassies. Arab League votes to suspend Syria if it does not adhere to peace plan. It imposes harsh sanctions on Assad regime. Jordan’s King Abdullah calls on Assad to step down.
December Security forces fire on an anti-government demonstration in Hama. 200 are reportedly massacred in Idlib. UN reports that over 5,000 have been killed since the outbreak of the conflict.
Over 500,000 people protest across the country. Syria agrees to admit Arab League observers to monitor compliance with an agreement by which the government pledges to pull troops and heavy weapons out of civilian areas and allow access to journalists and human rights workers.
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2012: Armed Insurgency and Escalation
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Inside Syria International Reaction
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January Jabhat al-Nusra is formed as Syria’s al-Qaeda affiliate. This is initially effective against the regime and an ally of more moderate groups. Arab League calls for Assad to step down and withdraws observers owing to violence.
February Two car bombs in Aleppo kill 28. Government steps up bombardment of Homs and other cities. Hundreds die.
Al-Qaeda head Ayman al-Zawahiri calls for militants across the region to fight Assad.
Government-controlled areas vote on a new constitution establishing multi-party system. The polls are widely derided as a sham. UNSC tables resolution to support Arab League plan. Russia and China veto it.
US closes its embassy.
UN condemns human rights violations and demands Assad’s resignation. Kofi Annan is appointed Joint Special Envoy of the UN and Arab League.
March FSA retreats from Baba Amr in Homs citing concerns for civilian welfare and inability to defend it against better-armed troops. Syrian troops retake the district. Six Gulf states close their embassies.
UNSC, including Russia and China, endorses non-binding peace plan. It fails and fighting continues.
April Assad claims to have regained control over the country. Rebels accuse government troops of continued massacres. UN brokers a ceasefire and observers are deployed.
International Friends of Syria coalition convenes in Istanbul and votes to recognize Syrian National Council.
US and Arab states promise to aid rebels.
May Security forces raid Aleppo University. More people are killed here and in Damascus.
Parliamentary elections are held but boycotted by opposition.
108 people including 49 children killed in Houla. UN Human Rights Council accuses Assad’s troops of war crimes.
France, UK, Germany, Italy, Spain, Canada and Australia expel senior Syrian diplomats in protest at killing of civilians in Houla.
June UN observers fired on while trying to reach Haffa. They are met with the ‘stench of death’.
Russia sends two warships to Syria to protect its base.
Turkey changes rules of engagement after Syria shoots down a Turkish plane. This prompts an emergency NATO meeting. UN Under-Secretary for Peacekeeping Operations, Hervé Ladsous, calls the conflict ‘full-scale civil war’.
UN suspends observer patrols.
Geneva I talks held, resulting in Geneva communiqué.
July 200 massacred in village of Tremseh by government forces. In retaliation FSA bombs National Security building in Damascus, killing top Assad aides, and seizes Aleppo. UNSC tables a resolution threatening sanctions against Syria; Russia and China veto it.
UNHCR refugee camp opened in Jordan. This becomes home to 80,000 displaced Syrians.
August Security forces kill 400 in Damascus suburb and 40 more in Azaz near the Turkish border. Kofi Annan resigns and Lakhdar Brahimi takes over as Special Envoy. UN says both government troops and rebels have committed crimes against humanity.
Obama states that Assad’s use of chemical weapons would be a ‘red line’ tilting the US towards intervention.
September US pledges to supply rebels with $45 million of non-lethal aid.
October Fighting and bomb at
tacks in various cities. Fire destroys the ancient market in Aleppo.
Syrian-Turkish tension rises when Syrian mortar fire kills five civilians in a Turkish border town. Turkey intercepts a Syrian plane allegedly carrying arms from Russia.
November Rebels shoot down two military aircraft.
National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces formed in Qatar, excluding Islamist militias.
Israeli military fire on Syrian artillery units across the Golan Heights, the first such return of fire since the Yom Kippur War of 1973. UN says rebels may have committed war crimes by summarily executing captured soldiers.
December Rebels gain ground in Damascus, taking a number of military bases and pushing towards the airport.
UNHCR confirms more than half a million Syrians have fled the country as refugees. US, Britain, France, Turkey and Gulf states formally recognize the opposition National Coalition as the ‘legitimate representative’ of the Syrian people.
US labels Jabhat al-Nusra a terrorist organization.
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2013: The Rise of Islamic State
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Inside Syria International Reaction
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January Assad says he will introduce political reforms to end the war but violence continues with bombings in Aleppo and Damascus.
65 people are found executed, bound and shot, in Aleppo.
A convoy carrying anti-aircraft weapons is hit by air strikes – Israel is suspected of the attack. International donors pledge more than $1.5 billion to help Syrian civilians. US says it will give medical supplies and food aid to National Coalition but not military support.
The Morning They Came for Us Page 16
