All nine worlds swirled with flame; the cosmos was a furnace. Wild winds choked those who yet lived. Yggdrasil fell. The dwarfs’ forge tipped and set even that sacred tree afire. One after the other, the nine worlds fell into the sea.
Time ended.
Yet still the earth rose again from the seas—against all odds, yes, but exactly as it had to be. Remember that everything went as fate would have it, all was destined. Light returned, for Sun had given birth to a daughter as dedicated as she had been, who followed the same path each day. Plants grew, fish swarmed the seas, birds fluttered above. From death came life, just as the first god Bor’s three sons carved the cosmos from the corpse of the giant Ymir so long ago, just as spring follows winter.
When the creatures of the cosmos attacked each other in the battle Ragnarok, the very cosmos was destroyed. Fire engulfed Yggdrasil; winds stole the breath of those still living; and the nine worlds fell into the sea.
The god Balder and his brother god Hod, who killed Balder, and their brother god Vali, who killed Hod, all survived and would walk on green grasses without rancor toward anyone. Another of Odin’s sons, Vidar, who had avenged his father’s death, also lived on, as did Thor’s sons Modi and Magni, who kept with them that best of hammers, Mjolnir. And last of the gods to survive was Hoenir, the huge god whose silence cost Mimir his head, but who now looked at all clearly and foretold the future. These seven Aesir would rule in the new cosmos.
Two humans had taken refuge inside Yggdrasil, Lif and Lifthrasir. They would have children and their children would have children, and they would people the new cosmos with goodness.
But the dragon Nidhogg survived, too, and with a purpose. Those who weren’t good would die in a cold place, all doors facing the north wind, all rivers roiling with poisons. Nidhogg would suck the evil dead dry, till nothing remained but rattling bones.
Still, this new way would be fair and peaceful.
Ragnarok was the end.
This was the beginning.
The humans Lif and Lifthrasir survived the battle and repeopled the new cosmos. The dragon Nidhogg also survived, and it plagued anyone who was evil. This way, the new beginning promised a fair and peaceful future.
This is an illustration from an Icelandic manuscript of the 18th century. Here the god Heimdall is blowing Gjallarhorn to summon the Aesir to a meeting.
AFTERWORD
The first recorded versions we have of the Norse myths are in Icelandic sagas that date from around A.D. 1180. But somewhere around 1225 the Icelander Snorri, son of Sturla, gave us a major work called the Snorra Edda, also known as Prose Edda. Most of our ideas about Norse mythology today are based on that work.
Many of the Norse texts we have are examples of what is called skaldic poetry, which would have been performed at court events by skilled poets who wrote their own verse. Skaldic poetry obeyed complex rules about internal rhyme, patterns of alliteration, meter, and other issues of stress. The result was often a syntax so convoluted that sometimes scholars are unsure what is actually meant by a given verse.
Snorri offers stories and poems, as well as a poetry handbook that explains the structure of the poems and a prologue that gives a somewhat historical framework for the myths. While Snorri was Christian, he treats the pagan mythology with respect. Some of the Icelandic sagas were probably written by Snorri, but others were written after his death, well into the 14th century. The Prose Edda was preserved in the manuscript called Codex Regius 2367, 4Ð.
Alongside Snorri’s work is another collection, called the Poetic Edda. It is preserved in the manuscript Codex Regius 2364, 4Ð. It contains a collection of poems in a much more relaxed form, the style of which has become known as Eddic. These poems were anonymous and performed by all sorts of people on all sorts of occasions; they are clear and easily comprehensible.
As I was writing this book, I consulted translations of both works and I came across a number of inconsistencies between the mythological tales. The inconsistencies I found are of three types, and the way I handled them in this book varies based on the type.
One type is logical inconsistency. Since the reader is very likely to pick up on this, I face it head-on. In “The Gods Take Revenge” Loki is bound up till the conflagration of Ragnarok. But Loki is a shape-shifter. He could easily have turned into a flea and escaped. The sources I consulted did not address this inconsistency. So I mention it at the end of the chapter as a question for the reader. Other times characters behave as though they don’t know the future, when, in fact, they should. In “Death by Blunder,” for example, Loki disguises himself as an old woman and asks Frigg if any object in the cosmos failed to take the oath not to harm Balder. Frigg knows the future, so she should either not answer Loki or be tied up in knots by not being able to stop herself from answering him, fully aware of what he’ll do with the information. Instead, she seems to simply answer him as though she has no idea what will come of it. So I question her behavior right there in the chapter.
A second problem is inconsistencies of facts. For example, in “Idunn’s Apples” Odin and Loki and Hoenir are hungry and can’t get meat to cook over an open fire because an eagle has put a magic spell on it. Odin’s mouth waters for this meat. But Odin is supposed to live on wine alone. There was no way to address this inconsistency without breaking dramatic momentum. In my retelling, therefore, I simply don’t mention Odin’s feelings about the meat in order not to confront the reader with a conflict that to me seems irrelevant. For another, Odin’s brothers are called Vili and Ve in the Poetic Edda, but later we find that three gods brought humans to life: Odin, Hoenir, and Lodur. In the Prose Edda those three gods are said to be sons of Bor. But nowhere does it say that Bor had more than three sons. I didn’t want to leave out the names of the three gods who were so important to the origin of humans, so I simply said the number of gods had grown and I didn’t bring up whether these particular three gods were brothers or not. Likewise, one of Odin’s sons and one of Loki’s sons share the name Vali, and scholars point out potential confusions between the two. But I simply left both gods with the name given them in the Poetic Edda and made sure to make it clear each time I discussed them which one was involved. And, finally, the name Fjalar in this book belongs to a dwarf and to a rooster. Actually, it was a common name in Norse mythology for any deceiver, so it might not have been a name at all but an epithet (like naming someone Liar).
A third kind of inconsistency involves time. When Loki is insulting everyone at the feast in the huge hall in “The Gods Take Revenge,” he includes in his harangue Bragi, the god of poetry. Soon after this, Kvasir helps to trap Loki. But Bragi is not born until after Kvasir’s death. Here I resolve the issue by simply not mentioning Bragi in the list of gods that Loki insults, since Bragi does not take any action of note at this feast—so no inconsistency slaps the reader in the face. Another possible inconsistency is in “Frey & Gerd,” when Skirnir offers Gerd the ring Draupnir if she’ll marry Frey. This is based on the poem “Skírnismál” of the Poetic Edda, and it is unclear where this event fits among the others timewise. To me, for dramatic effect, this story should immediately follow the story of Skadi and Njord, so that’s where I put it. But the ring presents a problem. The dwarf Brokk gave Draupnir to Odin. At Balder’s funeral, Odin, distraught with grief, threw it into the blazing ship that was his son’s coffin. But later, when Hermod went to Hel to try to win Balder’s freedom, Balder gave Draupnir to Hermod and asked him to return it to Odin. I don’t know how it came to be in Skirnir’s hands at any point. But, perhaps, if Skirnir has Draupnir, then Loki is dead. Yet at this point in my retelling, Loki is still alive. I try to allay any confusions the reader might have by saying it’s anyone’s guess how the ring fell into Skirnir’s hands.
This is an illustration from an Icelandic manuscript of the 17th century. Here we see Valhalla on one side and Jormungand on the other.
This third kind of inconsistency is interesting. I have found time inconsistencies repeatedl
y in mythologies of many cultures, including those of ancient Greece and ancient Egypt. This may be partially due to the fact that different people wrote down the different tales and at different times, and may not have been aware of (or cared to dovetail with) what the others wrote—leading to inconsistencies. And certainly, traditional stories often have multiple variants. But it might also suggest that mythologies sometimes do not adhere to linear chronology. Why can’t time simply fold back on itself, especially in a world riddled with magic?
THE ANCIENT NORSE WORLD
TIME LINE OF NORSE HISTORY
8000–4000 B.C.
The glaciers gradually retreat, allowing humans to inhabit Scandinavia.
Circa 4000 B.C.
Hunting tribes follow reindeer into southern Scandinavia. They are ancestors of the Sami people (who live north of the Arctic Circle today). Petroglyphs (rock drawings) date back to this time.
Circa 1550 B.C.
Tribes settle central Sweden and western Norway. Traders travel inland rivers from the Baltic Sea down to the Mediterranean on a path known as the Amber Route, since amber was a valuable commodity of the north.
1000 B.C.
Indo-European tribes settle in Scandinavia; the proto-Germanic language develops its own characteristics.
500 B.C.
The Iron Age begins in Scandinavia through contact with the La Tène Celtic civilization to the south.
450–50 B.C.
Scandinavians trade heavily with Celts, who occupy most of Europe in competition with Greeks and Romans.
200 B.C.
Scandinavian tribes move into Germany and eastern Europe, displacing Celts, many of whom move into the British Isles and Ireland. The north branch of proto-Germanic begins to form Old Norse.
Early times– A.D. 150
Around 3000 B.C. people in Denmark used planks to build up the edges of canoes. Circa 2000 to 500 B.C. boats developed high posts at each end with prows depicting dragon heads or other animals. By A.D. 100–150 boats had become long, with planks, ribs, and end posts of oak, and a wide middle area that had a mast and sail. Long oars were looped to rowlocks. They were fast and agile.
150 B.C.
The first runes we know of date to 150 B.C. They were found in Denmark and northern Germany. The runes were letters evolved from Old Italic alphabets carved into stones. Their uses are a mystery; perhaps they named tribes, perhaps they were magical signs.
Circa 120 B.C.
Romans settle throughout Europe. Around 58–51 B.C., Scandinavian tribes, known as Goths, move from Sweden into central Europe. By 25 B.C. the Danes of Jutland are trading heavily with western Europe.
Circa A.D. 325–500
Christianity spreads via Romans to Goths in central Europe. Tribes skirmish, especially Germanic and Roman. Pirates plague the seas. The Huns, nomads of central Asia, the Caucasus mountains, and eastern Europe, under the leadership of Attila, conquer much of eastern Germanic lands between A.D. 433 and 452. Attila the Hun greatly weakens the influence of Romans. By A.D. 476 the Western Roman Empire collapses.
Circa A.D. 450–650
West Germanic tribes, including from Jutland, invade and settle in the British Isles.
Circa A.D. 550–790
Uppsala, the eastern central part of Sweden, becomes a major economic force. It exports iron, fur, and slaves. Its horses are renowned for strength and speed.
Circa A.D. 500–1160
The Danes build the wall Danevirke across southern Jutland to keep out Frankish tribes from the south. (Written sources say construction began in 808. But carbon dating in 2013 shows construction began before A.D. 500.)
A.D. 772–785
In 772 Charlemagne, ruler of the Frankish Kingdom (most of western Europe), starts a campaign to exterminate non-Christians, including the Norse. In 778–785 the Danes assist the Saxons in their resistance to Charlemagne.
Circa A.D. 790–1066
This is the Viking age. Vikings raid England, Scotland, and Ireland, and then also Spain, France, Wales, and Germany. From 848 to 871 Norwegians fight Danes for control of Ireland. Circa 860 the Norse discover Iceland; ten years later they settle there. In 878 Alfred the Great forces Christianity on the Danes; many Danes and Norwegians flee to Iceland. In 912 Vikings take over the northern Frankish lands, which thereafter is called Normandy. In 947 Norway adopts Christianity; soon Denmark does the same. In 982 Erik the Red discovers Greenland; four years later Vikings settle there. In 1000 Iceland converts to Christianity. Circa 1000 Leif Eriksson discovers North America, but the native people fight him off. In the first half of the 1000s Normans (who are of Norse descent, but French-speaking) invade Italy and Sicily. In 1066 Normans take over England. After this point there are no more “Viking” invasions, and belief in the old gods withers.
CAST OF CHARACTERS
Name: BALDER
Norse name: Baldr
Known for: being as sweet as he was handsome, being killed by his brother Hod
Lineage: son of Frigg and Odin
Married to: Nanna
Name: FENRIR
Norse name: Fenrir
Known for: biting off the hand of Odin’s son Tyr, killing Odin at final battle of Ragnarok
Lineage: wolf son of Loki and the frost giantess Angrboda
Married to: unknown
Name: BROKK AND SINDRI
Norse name: Brokk and Sindri
Known for: making Thor’s hammer, Mjolnir, and Odin’s ring, Draupnir
Lineage: dwarf brothers
Married to: unknown
Name: FREY
Norse name: Frey
Known for: being god of fertility of the land
Lineage: son of Njord, twin of Freyja
Married to: Gerd
Name: BURI
Norse name: Búri
Known for: being the first god, father of Bor, grandfather of Odin
Lineage: the cow Audhumla licked him free from the ice
Married to: unknown, but probably a frost giantess
Name: FREYJA
Norse name: Freyja
Known for: beauty, wearing a falcon-feather cloak
Lineage: daughter of Njord, twin of Frey
Married to: Od, who disappeared
Name: FRIGG
Norse name: Frigg
Known for: foreknowledge, being the mother of Balder and Hod
Lineage: Aesir goddess
Married to: Odin
Name: HEL
Norse name: Hel
Known for: presiding over those who die of sickness or old age
Lineage: daughter of Loki and the frost giantess Angrboda
Married to: never married
Name: GERD
Norse name: Gerð
Known for: beauty
Lineage: daughter of giant Gymir
Married to: Frey
Name: HOD
Norse name: Höð
Known for: being blind, being tricked into killing his brother Balder
Lineage: son of Frigg and Odin
Married to: unknown
Name: HEIMDALL
Norse name: Heimdall
Known for: guarding the entrance to Asgard and being progenitor of the classes of people
Lineage: son of Odin
Married to: unknown
Name: IDUNN
Norse name: Iðunn
Known for: apples that keep the gods young and strong
Lineage: Aesir goddess
Married to: Bragi
Name: JORMUNGAND
Norse name: Jörmungand
Known for: circling Midgard and killing Thor at final battle of Ragnarok
Lineage: serpent son of Loki and the frost giantess Angrboda
Married to: unknown
Name: MIMIR
Norse name: Mímir
Known for: wisdom and memory, having his head severed by the Vanir
Lineage: giant, perhaps the brother of Odin’s mother, Bestla
Married to: Sinmara
Name: KVASIR
Norse name: Kvasir
Known for: knowledge and poetry
Lineage: born from the spit of the Aesir and Vanir gods
Married to: unknown
Name: NJORD
Norse name: Njörð
Known for: wisdom, love of boats and harbors
Lineage: Vanir god, traded to the Aesir with twin son and daughter
Married to: Skadi
Name: LOKI
Norse name: Loki
Known for: shape-shifting, troublemaking
Lineage: son of the giant Farbauti and the goddess Laufey
Married to: at least three wives
Name: ODIN
Norse name: Óðinn
Known for: one eye, wisdom, ruling Asgard
Lineage: son of Bor and Bestla
Married to: Frigg
Name: SKADI
Norse name: Skaði
Known for: zipping over the frozen countryside on skis
Lineage: daughter of the giant Thjazi
Married to: Njord
Name: THOR
Norse name: Þórr
Known for: his hammer, Mjolnir; fierce fighting
Lineage: son of Odin and the earth
Married to: Sif
Name: SKIRNIR
Norse name: Skírnir
Known for: being the servant and messenger of Frey
Lineage: unknown
Married to: unknown
Treasury of Norse Mythology Page 9
