Love and Hate in Jamestown

by David A. Price

  “Hereupon the President”: Symonds (1612), p. 206. “The best part thereof”: Archer, A Relation (1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 95.

  May 28: Archer, A Relation (1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, pp. 95–96.

  Shot him in the head: Archer, A Relation (1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 96. Debate over Smith: Ibid., p. 97; Symonds (1612), p. 207. Wingfield had recruited him: Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 233.

  Two native men came unarmed: Archer, A Relation (1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, pp. 97–98.

  Newport asked Wingfield: Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 214.

  Newport bid adieu: Percy, Observations Gathered Out of a Discourse (1608?), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 143. “Within lesse then seaven weekes”: Letter from the Council in Virginia (June 22, 1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 78. Brewster: Letter from William Brewster to unknown recipient (May–June 1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 107. “The mayne river”: Archer, Description of the River and Country (1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 99. “They are proper lusty”: Archer, Description of the People (1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 103. “The people steale”: Ibid. Still living in tents: Smith (1608), p. 35; Smith (1631), p. 295. Springtime deceptively mild: As far as I am aware, this connection was first made in Kelso (1996), vol. 2, p. 14.

  Powhatan sent a messenger: Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, pp. 214–15. Percy complained: Percy, Observations Gathered Out of a Discourse (1608?), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 143. Daily rations: Percy, op. cit., p. 144; Symonds (1612), p. 210. “Had we been as free”: Symonds (1612), p. 210.

  Virginia Company had urged: Instructions Given By Way of Advice (1606), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 52. Shortcomings of site: Hatch (1957), p. 3; Axtell (1995), p. 16. increasingly brackish: Earle (1979), p. 102. “Full of slime and filth”: Percy, Observations Gathered Out of a Discourse (1608?), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 144. “The sixt of August”: Percy, op. cit., pp. 143–44.

  “Our men were destroyed”: Percy, Observations Gathered Out of a Discourse (1608?), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 144. Causes of death: Earle (1979), p. 99. As few as five: Percy, op. cit. Smith says “scarce ten amongst us coulde either goe, or well stand, such extreame weaknes and sicknes oppressed us.” Symonds (1612), p. 209. Men groaned and cried out: Percy, op. cit., p. 145. Smith and Ratcliffe ill: Smith (1608), p. 33. Wingfield-Gosnold ties: Gookin (1949), pp. 408–409. “In his sickness time”: Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 215. Gosnold was buried: Percy, op. cit., p. 144. Movement to depose Wingfield: Wingfield, op. cit., p. 218; Percy, op. cit., p. 145; Symonds (1612), p. 210. George Kendall: Smith (1608), pp. 33–35; Percy, op. cit., p. 144. Nearly half of the colonists were dead: Symonds (1612), p. 210; Smith (1608), p. 35; Wingfield, op. cit., p. 215. Began bringing corn: Percy, op. cit., p. 145; Symonds (1612), p. 210.

  A signed order discharging him: Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 219. Could remove the president: Instructions for Government (Nov. 20, 1606), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 36. “That they had eased him”: Wingfield, op. cit., p. 219. Master Martyn followed: Ibid., p. 220.

  Wingfield denied any wrongdoing: Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, pp. 220–23. Crofts: Ibid., p. 222. Power to hold trials: Instructions for Government (Nov. 20, 1606), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, pp. 38–40. Action for slander: Wingfield, op. cit., pp. 223–24; Smith (1624), p. 140 (written by Robert Fenton, Edward Harrington, and John Smith). At this time: Smith (1624), p. 323.

  Smith’s new duties: Symonds (1612), p. 211; Smith (1608), p. 35. Food in the stores: Symonds, op. cit., p. 211.

  5: THE RESCUE

  For Zúñiga’s correspondence, see J.V., vol. 1, pp. 114–23. See also Wright (1971), p. 35.

  Exactly that offense: James Read, the blacksmith, was on the scaffold and about to swing from a rope, having been convicted of punching President Ratcliffe (after the president struck him first). At the last minute, Read avoided the noose by accusing George Kendall of serving as a spy for Spain. A jury accepted Read’s allegation; Kendall was executed by a firing squad. See testimony of Francis Magnel, July 1, 1610, reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 156; Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 224; Smith (1608), p. 41. As this episode occurred after Kendall’s initial arrest and banishment from the council, the unspecified “heinous” activity that led to his arrest was probably distinct from this alleged espionage and remains a mystery.

  Ajacán: Lewis and Loomie (1953), p. 15. King James received Zúñiga: J.V., vol. 1, pp. 117–19. “I am quite satisfied”: Ibid., pp. 122–23.

  “In such despaire”: Smith (1608), p. 35.

  “Emotional death”: Frankl (1959), p. 33.

  Smith’s trading activities: Smith (1608), pp. 35–37. Wingfield also credits Smith for “trad[ing] up and downe the river with the Indyans for corn, which releved the collony well.” Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, pp. 222–23.

  A “bushel,” at this time, was officially defined according to the capacity of a container in London that served as a reference standard. The container was measured in 1931 and found to have a capacity of 2,148.28 cubic inches—essentially eight gallons. Zupko (1977), pp. 77, 93. Where the colonists wrote of “bushels” of corn, they were obviously writing in approximate terms.

  Phrases he left behind: Smith (1612), p. 136. Smith was interrogated in English, French, Dutch, and Italian during an episode in his slavery; see Smith (1630), p. 187. He negotiated with French pirates in their language during a later episode in 1615; see Smith (1616), p. 355. Natives’ daily lives: Smith (1612), pp. 162–70; see also chapter 5 of Rountree (1989).

  Approach of winter: Smith (1624), pp. 145–46. “tuftaffaty humorists”: Tuftaffaty, or tufted taffeta, was used in fancy attire. Humorists, in this context, were persons too much in thrall to their “humors.”

  One can only speculate: For this observation, I am indebted to Barbour (1964a), p. 155.

  “A tragedie”: Smith (1624), p. 146.

  Smith’s party rowed: Ibid.; Smith (1608), pp. 43–45.

  A most unhappy ending: Relation of William White, reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 150; Strachey (1612), p. 52; Smith (1612), p. 175. These accounts came to the English later from the natives.

  Smith, Emry, and Robinson: Smith (1608), p. 45; Smith (1624), p. 146. The battle with the natives and Smith’s subsequent captivity are recounted by Smith in his True Relation and Generall Historie, among other places. See Smith (1608), pp. 45–57; Smith (1624), pp. 146–52. An abbreviated version is in Smith’s contribution to Symonds’s Proceedings; see Symonds (1612), pp. 212–13.

  Apart from the rescue story—still to come—the essential facts of Smith’s captivity are not in dispute. For example, Smith’s antagonist Edward-Maria Wingfield evidently accepted Smith’s account, at least in general outline, and summarized it in his own history. Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, pp. 226–27.

  “A man of large stature”: Beverly (1705), p. 61. Age: The English thought Opechancanough to be about a hundred years old in 1646. Gleach (1997), p. 177.

  He had observed: Smith (1612), p. 169. 16. “The roundnesse of the Earth”: Smith (1624), p. 147.

  “no canyballs”: Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 216.

  Opechancanough visited Smith, messengers, reported in regretful tones: Smith (1608), pp. 49–51.

  “Presently came skipping”: Smith (1624), p. 149.

  From the ceremony: Ibid., p. 150. Anthropologist Frederic W. Gleach has argued that the purpose of the ceremony was not to divine the intentions of the English, but to “control the way in which the English (represented by sticks) entered from beyond, through the boundaries (the grains of corn), into the Powhatan world itself.” Gleach (1997), p. 114.

  Smith was brought: Smith (1624), p. 150. On the location of Werowocomoco, see Strachey (16
12), p. 36. The Virginia Department of Historical Resources and the College of William and Mary announced in May 2003 that an archaeological team had located the probable site of Werowocomoco on the York River.

  The description of Powhatan’s appearance is from Smith (1624), p. 126, and Strachey (1612), p. 49. The estimate of sixty for Powhatan’s age is Smith’s; the estimate of eighty is reported by Strachey. The portrayal of his subjects’ fearfulness is also Strachey’s; ibid., p. 51. The description of his countenance at the meeting is from Smith (1608), p. 53.

  “Little wanton”: Strachey (1612), p. 111. Strachey, like Smith, described her as an attractive (“well-featured”) girl. Ibid., p. 65. Regarding Powhatan’s wives, see Rountree (1990), p. 9. Smith’s description of Pocahontas is at Smith (1608), p. 93. The characterization of Pocahontas as her father’s “delight and darling” is Ralph Hamor’s. See Hamor, A True Discourse (1615), reprinted in Narratives, p. 802.

  Came forward with water: Smith (1624), p. 151. “Fat, lusty, manly”: Archer, A Relation (1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 92.

  Dialogue with Powhatan: Smith (1608), pp. 53–55. On the beating out of brains as a Powhatan form of execution, see Spelman, Relation of Virginia (1609), reprinted in Narratives, p. 492; Strachey, (1612), pp. 37, 52, 54; Purchas, Relation of Tomocomo (1617), reprinted in Narratives, p. 882. Chiefs kept in servitude: Smith (1612), pp. 166, 175. Hostile neighbors: Rountree (1989), p. 120; Gleach (1997), p. 24; Strachey (1612), p. 104.

  “There he was doomed”: Marshall (1804), vol. 1, p. 42.

  Powhatan sent him home: Smith (1624), p. 151. Smith himself would develop a high estimation of Powhatan’s son Nantaquoud, “the most manliest, comeliest, boldest spirit, I ever saw in a salvage.” Ibid., p. 258. He is also variously referred to in Smith’s writings as Nantaquaus and Naukaquawis; see the editor’s note at Smith (1986), vol. 2, p. 151 n. 4.

  6: GILDED DIRT

  “Somewhat too heavie”: Smith (1624), p. 152. The depiction of Rawhunt is from Smith (1608), p. 93. On demiculverins and other ordnance of the day, see Smith (1627), p. 109. Smith also showed the men a millstone, which, like the demiculverins, was too heavy to carry away.

  Regarding Archer’s swearing in, the attempt to run off with the Discovery, the charges against Smith, and Smith’s salvation upon Newport’s return, see Smith (1608), p. 61; Smith (1624), pp. 152–54; and Wingfield, Discourse (1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 227. The accounts of Smith and Wingfield are in accord. Archer is not explicitly named as among the gentlemen in the Discovery plot (no participants are named), but it is circumstantially likely, making sense of Smith’s near execution. See Barbour (1964a), p. 171. On a councilor’s status and compensation, see Letter of Francis Perkins (Mar. 28, 1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 158.

  “Everything my son and I had”: Letter of Francis Perkins (Mar. 28, 1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, pp. 160, 161–62. “Lost all his library”: Smith (1624), p. 157.

  “In a short time, it followed”: Symonds (1612), p. 215. This section of the Proceedingsis credited to both Anas Todkill and Thomas Studley; Studley, however, was not present to witness the events described, having died the previous August.

  Todkill . . . thought: Symonds (1612), p. 216. “Such a majestie”: Smith (1608), p. 65. The accounts omit mention of the Discovery, referring only to the barge, but it is unlikely that the colonists would have brought only the barge to accommodate thirty to forty men overnight.

  Powhatan then inquired: Smith (1608), p. 65. Regarding the fond care given the white dog, see Smith (1624), p. 261.

  Carried out the plan . . . Powhatan rose: Smith (1608), pp. 65–67. The description of the conversation in Smith’s lodge is Todkill’s. Symonds (1612), p. 216.

  Savage, Namontack: Smith (1608), p. 69; Symonds (1612), p. 216 (Todkill). Smith’s role as interpreter was recorded by Todkill. Symonds (1612), p. 217. The placement of Thomas Savage with Powhatan is also noted by Spelman, Relation of Virginia (1609), reprinted in Narratives, p. 482. Powhatan apparently liked Savage and treated him well. Ralph Hamor, A True Discourse (1615), reprinted in Narratives, p. 830.

  “To beleeve his friendship”: Smith (1608), p. 69.

  “Ostentation of greatnes”: Symonds (1612), p. 217 (Todkill).

  Blue beads: Ibid.; Smith (1608), p. 71; Smith (1624), p. 156.

  “The countrie is excellent”: Letter of Christopher Newport (July 29, 1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 76.

  “All turned to vapour”: Letter of Sir Walter Cope (Aug. 13, 1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 111. Spanish ambassador: Letter of Don Pedro de Zúñiga (Aug. 22, 1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 77. The gold-colored flecks: Smith (1986), vol. 1, p. 218 n. 1. Spiders: Strachey, A True Reportory (1625), reprinted in Narratives, p. 394. He passed word to the earl: Letter of Sir Thomas Smythe (Aug. 17, 1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 112.

  Refiners, goldsmiths: Regarding the practice of these crafts during the Jamestown era, see Kelso (2000), vol. 6, pp. 36–38. Materials used by the gold refiners at Jamestown have been recovered by archaeologists of the Jamestown Rediscovery team. Ibid. The council’s report: Letter from the Council in Virginia (1607), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 79. “All their wealth”: Smith (1608), p. 67.

  Riches . . . in more mundane articles: Smith (1612), p. 159. “Our gilded refiners”: Symonds (1612), pp. 218–19.

  “Very oft she came”: Symonds (1612), p. 274 (Richard Pots and William Fettiplace). Kekaten pokahontas: Smith (1612), p. 139. Rally the boys: Strachey (1612), p. 65. Apronlike deerskin dresses: Rountree (1989), p. 69 & n. From Smith’s description of Pocahontas in the True Relation, their friendship had evidently begun by the time Thomas Nelson left for England with Smith’s manuscript in early June of 1608.

  “Petitions, admirals”: Symonds (1612), p. 219.

  7: POWHATAN BECOMES AN ENGLISH PRINCE

  Turkeys, approach of the Phoenix: Smith (1608), pp. 81–85; Symonds (1612), pp. 219–220 (Todkill). “We thought ourselves as well fitted”: Smith (1608), p. 85.

  Reliable and sensible: Smith (1624), p. 154. Spent a week training: Smith (1608), p. 85; Symonds (1612), pp. 219–20 (Todkill).

  First offensive: Smith (1608), pp. 87–93; Symonds (1612), p. 220 (Todkill). The natives’ method for building canoes has been described as follows. (Evans [1957], p. 1).

  Rawhunt presented: Smith (1608), pp. 91–95; Smith (1624), pp. 159–60 (Todkill).

  The native attacks: Smith (1624), p. 160 (Todkill).

  “None was slaine”: Ibid.

  “Desirous to injoy”: Ibid.

  “This Newport brought”: Letter of Don Pedro de Zúñiga (June 26, 1608), reprinted in J.V., vol. 1, p. 163.

  “I hear not”: Chamberlain (1965), p. 40.

  Smith’s intentions: The byline on the True Relation ultimately read, “Written by Captaine Smith one of the said Collony, to a worshipfull friend of his in England.” On that basis, the True Relation is universally described nowadays as having been a letter from Smith to a friend. But those words were Healey’s, not Smith’s, and the reliability of Healey’s information about Smith’s intentions can only be guessed at. (At the time of the first printing, Healey did not even know who the author was, and so the True Relation was wrongly credited at first to a “Thomas Watson.”)

  On balance, the True Relation seems more likely an official or unofficial communication to a member of the Virginia Company, rather than a letter to a “worshipfull friend.” This is suggested by the extent of the negative information it contained, which would have put Smith at risk of punishment for violating the colony’s censorship rules if it were addressed to a friend outside the company. It is also suggested by the reportorial tone of the True Relation as published, which scarcely has the flavor of a personal letter—though, since the verbatim text of the original is lost, it is impossible to say whether Smith’s original had more of a personal, familiar aspect that Healey rooted out.

  A long and thick tree was chosen according to the size of
the boat desired, and a fire made on the ground around its base. The fire was kept burning until the tree had fallen. Then burning off the top and boughs, the trunk was raised upon poles laid over crosswise on forked posts so as to work at a comfortable height. The bark was removed with shells; gum and rosin spread on the upper side to the length desired and set on fire. By alternately burning and scraping, the log was hollowed out to the desired depth and width. The ends were scraped off and rounded for smooth navigating.

  Editor named John Healey: The True Relation identifies its editor only as “I.H.”; regarding the identification of “I.H.” as John Healey, see J.V., vol. 1, p. 168 n. 1. Note that the letter I substituted for the letter J in certain circumstances at this time, as in “Iones” for “Jones”—hence the seeming lack of congruity in the initials. The publisher of the True Relation, John Tapp, was a leading publisher of books on nautical subjects. Waters (1958), p. 497.

  “Fit to be private”: Smith (1608), p. 24. “Being in good health”: Ibid., p. 97. That the latter was added by Healey is reasonably clear from its variance with practically the entire content of the True Relation.

  Took fourteen men: Smith (1624), pp. 162–63. Read avoided the noose for his belligerence only by accusing councilor George Kendall of espionage. See chapter 5 n. 2, above.

  “Mineralls, rivers, rocks”: Smith (1624), p. 168. This portion of the Generall Historie is signed by Walter Russell, Anas Todkill, and Thomas Momford, all of whom were members of the exploration party.

  Place-names, “the best merchants”: Ibid., pp. 164–67. Washington, D.C.: One of the villages the party visited, Moyoanes, was near present-day Washington. J.V., vol. 1, p. 239.

  Stingray, Kecoughtans: Smith (1624), pp. 168–69.

  “Pallace”: Ibid., p. 180. “There we found”: Ibid., p. 169.

  “Not worthy of remembering”: Ralph Hamor, A True Discourse (1615), reprinted in Narratives, p. 806. “All the time”: Smith (1624), pp. 174–75. This section of the Generall Historie is credited to Anthony Bagnall, surgeon; Nathaniel Powell, gentleman; and Anas Todkill. All three were part of the second Chesapeake expedition.