by James Millar
Tsvetaeva rejected the Russian Revolution, but her views would prove complex over time: She would come into conflict with reactionary ?migr? circles. At the onset of the Russian civil war, Efron joined the White Army and lost contact with the family. Tsvetaeva and her daughters spent five years of poverty in Moscow. Tsvetaeva sent her younger daughter, Irina, to an orphanage, only to learn later that she had died there. Tsvetaeva’s collection Demesne of the Swans (Lebediny stan), unpublished until 1957, expresses support for the White Army. Other work during this period includes the collections Mileposts II (Versty II) and Remeslo (Craft).
In 1922 Tsvetaeva and Alya emigrated to join Efron, who was in exile. They lived in Berlin, then Prague, then Paris. She gave birth to her son Georgy (Moor) in 1925. Her creative output during this period includes the poetry collections After Russia (Posle Rossii) and Verses to My Son (Stikhi k synu) and the plays Ariadne and Phaedra. Alienated from both her homeland and the Parisian ?migr? circles, Tsvetaeva suffered extreme isolation.
Efron’s political sympathies shifted, and he became a spy for the Soviet Union. Alya, who shared his views, returned to the Soviet Union in 1937; Efron followed later that year. Tsvetaeva and her son joined them in 1939. Boris Pasternak helped her find translation work, but she was otherwise ostracized by the government and by established poets. In 1941 Efron was shot and Alya sent to a labor camp. Tsvetaeva and her son were evacuated to Yelabuga (Tatar Republic), where they lacked means of support. Tsvetaeva committed suicide on August 31, 1941. See also: GULAG
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Feinstein, Elaine. (1987). A Captive Lion: The Life of Marina Tsvetaeva. London: Hutchinson. Karlinsky, Simon. (1985). Marina Tsvetaeva: The Woman, Her World, and Her Poetry. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Obolensky, Dimitri. (1976). The Heritage of Russian Verse. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Tsvetaeva, Marina. (1993). Selected Poems, 4th ed., trans. and intro. Elaine Feinstein. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
DIANA SENECHAL
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TUKHACHEVSKY, MIKHAIL NIKOLAYEVICH
TUGAN-BARANOVSKY, MIKHAIL IVANOVICH
(1865-1919), political economist and social theorist.
The most significant prerevolutionary Russian and Ukrainian contributor to economics, Tugan-Baranovsky was born near Kharkov, Ukraine, and attended Kharkov University. As a leading member of the Legal Marxist group, Tugan attempted to reform orthodox Russian Marxism by adding a large dose of neo-Kantian ethics, together with insights from British classical economics and a dash of the German historical school. In economic theory Tu-gan’s most significant work was Industrial Crises in Contemporary England (1894). This pioneered the detailed empirical description of trade cycles-together with concern for their social consequences- alongside a theoretical explanation combining maldistribution of income, disproportion between industrial branches, and a mechanistic steam engine analogy using free loanable capital as the motor force. This approach influenced Western macroeconomic theorists such as John Maynard Keynes, Dennis Robertson, and Michal Kalecki.
Tugan also wrote a major work examining the history of the Russian factory using legislative and business history sources, a widely read account of the principles of political economy, and a study of cooperative institutions. In addition, Tugan made notable contributions to social theory, monetary economics, conceptions of socialist planning, and the history of economics. Towards the end of his life Tugan’s allegiance shifted from Russia back to Ukraine, and he was Ukrainian Minister of Finance from August to December 1917. During 1918 he helped to establish the Academy of Science in Kiev, and died on a train headed for Paris the following year. See also: INDUSTRIALIZATION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barnett, Vincent. (2001). “Tugan-Baranovsky as a Pioneer of Trade Cycle Analysis.” Journal of the History of Economic Thought 23(4):443-466. Crisp, Olga. (1968). “M.I. Tugan-Baranovskii.” In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. D. L. Sills, vol. 16. New York: Macmillan. Tugan-Baranovsky, M. I. (1970). The Russian Factory in the Nineteenth Century, tr. Arthur Levin and Cleora S. Levin. Homewood, IL: R. D. Irwin for the American Economic Association.
VINCENT BARNETT
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSSIAN HISTORY
TUKHACHEVSKY, MIKHAIL NIKOLAYEVICH
(1893-1937), prominent Soviet military figure; strategist, commander, weapons procurer.
Mikhail Tukhachevsky is one of the most important and controversial figures in the history of the Soviet armed forces. Born into aristocracy, he attended prestigious imperial military schools and academies before joining the communist cause and becoming a fervent Bolshevik. He served in World War I and was taken prisoner by the Germans. He escaped, and later commanded Red Army troops in the civil war. Tukhachevsky held numerous important posts within the Red Army, including chief of the Red Army Staff, Chief of Armaments, and Commander of the Leningrad Military District. In 1935 he was awarded the highest military honor of Marshal of the Soviet Union.
Tukhachevsky was an innovative and shrewd military strategist who theorized combat scenarios for future wars, created new means of employing forces, and worked tirelessly for the implementation of his ideas into the rearmament and reform of the armed forces. He incessantly called for more resources to be devoted to rearmament, in spite of numerous competing demands on limited resources from other state sectors.
Tukhachevsky wrote many articles about military tactics and strategy, the most important of which was Future War (1928). This 700-page treatise surveyed the combat potential of all countries neighboring the USSR, offering a range of combat scenarios in the event of war. Together with his military colleagues, Tukhachevsky developed the tactical force employment concept of deep battle. This maneuver involved the use of tanks and aircraft to penetrate deep into the enemy’s defense and destroy his forces. The deep battle concept was incorporated into Soviet 1936 Field Regulations and was utilized in the Red Army’s combat operations against the German Army in the second half of World War II. The deep battle concept also found expression in NATO military doctrine in the 1980s. Tukhachevsky’s contributions arguably rendered him the most prescient and talented strategist in the Red Army in the 1920s and 1930s.
While commander of troops in the Leningrad Military District, Tukhachevsky worked closely with designers and theorists to develop a variety of new weapons and methods for employing them. In addition, he mastered the technical details of
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complex weapons systems, from aircraft engines to dirigibles and rocket propulsion systems. Tukhachevsky also oversaw aspects of the secret military collaboration with German aircraft and chemical weapons experts, urging the Germans to share more of their knowledge and experience than they were sometimes willing. When tensions developed in Manchuria in 1931, presenting the threat of war to the Soviet Union from East and West, defense production became a higher priority, and many of Tukhachevsky’s projects came to fruition.
Tukhachevsky’s relationship with Josef Stalin, who ordered his execution in 1937 during the Great Terror, is controversial and unresolved. The origins of the tension between Stalin and Tukhachevsky have been traced to several events, documents, and rumors. Possible factors include: conflicts between Stalin and Tukhachevsky over the command of the Battle for Warsaw in 1920; Tukhachevsky’s criticism of the role of the cavalry army in the civil war for which Stalin served as chief political commissar; Tukhachevsky’s warnings of the German military threat to the USSR; and documents falsified by Germans or Czechoslovak agents alleging Tukhachevsky’s intent to overthrow the Soviet leadership together with Nazi forces. See also: MILITARY, SOVIET AND POST-SOVIET; PURGES, THE GREAT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alexandrov, Victor. (1963). The Tukhachevsky Affair. London: MacDonald. Samuelson, Lennart. (1999). Plans for Stalin’s War Machine: Tukhachevskii and Military-Economic Planning. New York: St. Martin’s. Stoecker, Sally. (1998). Forging
Stalin’s Army: Marshal Tukhachevsky and the Politics of Military Innovation. Boulder, CO: Westview.
SALLY W. STOECKER
TUPOLEV, ANDREI NIKOLAYEVICH
(1888-1972), patriarch of Soviet aircraft design.
Andrei Tupolev was one of the most important aircraft designers in the Soviet Union during the interwar period and was awarded the honor of “Hero of Socialist Labor” three times in his career. Tupolev is considered by many to be the father of
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Soviet nonferrous metal aircraft construction, and he developed more than fifty original aircraft designs and over 100 modifications. In addition to fighter aircraft and heavy long-range bomber aircraft, Tupolev also designed aero-sleighs, dirigibles, and torpedo boats. Educated at the prestigious Bau-man Technical School in Moscow, he was one of the founders of the Central Aviation Institute in 1918 and created a design bureau within it. He spent most of his career at the design bureau and in 1936 received orders from the Heavy Industry Commissariat to transfer to GUAP (State Directorate of Aviation Industry) as their chief engineer who oversaw aircraft production. In May 1937, Tupolev’s ANT-7 flew to the North Pole successfully. One month later, he was accused of being an enemy of the state and was arrested for his alleged role in espionage. After serving one year in regular prison, Tupolev was permitted to continue his design work in a special prison as a means of avoiding hard labor. Although his name was temporarily withdrawn from public, his stature was restored in the post-Stalin era. See also: AVIATION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Saukke, M. B. (1993). The Little-Known Tupolev (Neizvest-nyi Tupolev). Moscow: Original. Yakovlev, A.S. (1982). Soviet Aircraft (Sovetskiye samo-lety). Moscow: Nauka.
SALLY W. STOECKER
TURGENEV, IVAN SERGEYEVICH
(1818-1883), Russian novelist, playwright, and poet.
Turgenev was born into an extremely wealthy family on an estate with 500 serfs near Oryol, in the Mtsensky uezd, in central European Russia. His mother, a tyrannical shrew, savagely beat her serfs and her sons and despised all things Russian. The family spoke only French in the home. His father was an attractive and dissipated rake. Turgenev’s childhood nurtured in him an animosity toward the institution of serfdom and a profound understanding of the culture of rural, aristocratic culture of pre-Reform Russia-the very cultural wellspring from which so many of the characters in his novels were to emerge.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSSIAN HISTORY
TURGENEV, IVAN SERGEYEVICH
Turgenev is nearly universally mentioned, along with Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Leo Tolstoy, as one of the great masters of the psychological novel, although Turgenev himself disparaged more than once the emphasis on psychological analysis that marks the works of the other two members of that triumvirate. Turgenev further distinguished himself from Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky by beginning his career as a poet: his first major work was the long poem Parasha, published in 1843-a year before Dostoyevsky’s entr?e into literature and nearly a decade before Tolstoy’s. Parasha was followed by a handful of other significant verse works, though Turgenev later wrote that he felt a nearly physical antipathy toward his verse works.
Although his poetry was enthusiastically received by Vissarion Belinsky, the leading literary critic of the time, Turgenev’s first work of lasting influence was a series of sketches of what Turgenev knew first-hand from his childhood: the manorial, rural, and peasant milieus. The brief, episodic descriptions were initially published separately, beginning in 1847, and then as a single work, A Huntsman’s Sketches, in 1852. The work exercised a profound influence on the public that is often likened to that of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, published the same year. Turgenev’s work is one of the highest artistic quality-exquisite, tightly crafted descriptions of the physical world combined with engaging and complex portraits of peasants (generally positively portrayed) and gentry (generally negatively portrayed).
Beginning soon after the death of Nicholas I in 1855, Turgenev, always sensitive to the winds of change, wrote his four most significant novels: Rudin (1856), Home of the Gentry (sometimes translated, more literally, as Nest of Gentlefolk) (1859), On the Eve (1860) and Fathers and Sons (more precisely Fathers and Children) (1862). All are penetrating chronicles of the quickly shifting alliances, mores, and institutions that marked the initiatory period of the Great Reforms, with all its optimism and surety of a brighter future. The greatest of these, Fathers and Sons, depicts the intergenerational conflict between the liberal men of the 1840s, with their refined, European (more specifically, Gallic) sensibilities and an inclination toward incremen-talism in social and political change; and the new people of the younger generation, nihilists (a word Turgenev brought into coinage), men of science who embraced German-inflected positivism, disparaged aesthetics per se, and believed in the creative potential of destruction. The older generation
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSSIAN HISTORY
Ivan Turgenev, engraving from a French publication of 1881.
THE ART ARCHIVE/MUS?E CARNAVALET PARIS/DAGLI ORTI
found Turgenev’s portrait of their brethren dismissive and patronizing, and the younger generation found their reflection insulting and patronizing. Turgenev, criticized from nearly every political angle, responded by quitting Russia for Western Europe. From his refuge in Baden-Baden, Turgenev wrote Smoke (1867), a venomous satire that attacked, inter alia, the radicalized intelligentsia in exile, the Europeanized Russian aristocracy, and the conservative Slavophiles.
Poems in Prose, Turgenev’s final work, sealed his reputation as the first Russian stylist. The final poem famously praises the Russian language as great, powerful, truthful, and free, a tribute perhaps nowhere truer than when the Russian words flowed from Turgenev’s own pen. He died near Paris in 1882, and, according to his wishes, his body was transported back to St. Petersburg where it was interred in perhaps the largest public funeral in Russian history. See also: DOSTOYEVSKY, FYODOR MIKHAILOVICH; GOLDEN AGE OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE; TOLSTOY, LEO NIKO-LAYEVICH
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, Elizabeth Cheresh. (1992). Beyond Realism: Tur-genev’s Poetics of Secular Salvation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Costlow, Jane T. (1990). Worlds within Worlds: The Novels of Ivan Turgenev. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Magarshack, David. (1954). Turgenev: A Life. New York: Grove Press. Schapiro, Leonard Bertram. (1978). Turgenev, His Life and Times. New York: Random House. Seeley, Frank Friedeberg. (1991). Turgenev: A Reading of His Fiction. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
MICHAEL A. DENNER
TURKESTAN
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and southern Kazakhstan cover the territory of former Turkestan. The region is mostly desert and semi-desert, with the exceptions of the mountainous east and the river valleys. The major rivers are the Amu Darya, Zeravshan, Syr Darya, Chu, and Ili. Of the five major ethnic groups, most Turkmen, Kyrgyz, and Kazakhs were still nomads in 1900, but most Uzbeks had taken up agriculture or urban life, the traditional pursuits of the Tajiks.
Russia was drawn into Turkestan by the need for a stable frontier and the desire to forestall British influence. The Turkestan oblast was formed in 1865, subject to the Orenburg governor-general, from territories recently conquered from the Kokand khanate. These included Tashkent, one of the two largest towns in the region (the other was Bukhara). In 1867 the Turkestan government-general was established, consisting of two oblasts-Syr Darya and Semireche-responsible directly to the war minister, with Tashkent as its capital.
Further annexations from the Uzbeg khanates expanded the government-general. Bukhara’s defeat in 1868 added the Zeravshan okrug, including Samarkand. The right bank of the lower Amu Darya was annexed to the Syr Darya oblast as a result of Khiva’s defeat in 1873, and the remainder of Kokand was annexed as the Fergana oblast in 1876. In 1882 Semireche was transferred to the new Steppe government-general, reducing Turkestan to two oblasts, but four years
later the Zeravshan
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okrug, enlarged at the expense of Syr Darya, was renamed the Samarkand oblast. In 1898 Semireche was returned to the Turkestan government-general and the Transcaspian oblast was added to Tashkent’s jurisdiction.
Turkestan’s value to Russia was primarily strategic until the late 1880s. In the wake of the construction of the Central Asian Railroad, connecting the Caspian seacoast with Samarkand in 1888 (extended to Tashkent in 1898), the government-general’s importance as a source of cotton grew rapidly. It supplied almost half of Russia’s needs by 1911. The opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent railroad in 1906 facilitated imports of grain to deficit areas like Fergana, where 36 to 38 percent of the sown area was given over to cotton by World War I. To the same end the construction of a line from Tashkent to western Siberia was begun before the war. Cotton fiber and cottonseed processing were the major industries.
As of the 1897 census, Turkestan’s five oblasts contained 5,260,300 inhabitants, 13.9 percent of them urban. The largest towns were Tashkent (156,400), Kokand (82,100), Namangan (61,900), and Samarkand (54,900). By 1911, 17 percent of Semireche’s population and half of its urban residents were Russians, four-fifths of them agricultural colonists. In the other four oblasts in the same year, Russians constituted only 4 percent of the population, and the overwhelming majority lived in European-style settlements alongside the native quarters in the major towns.
