103. Latrobe, Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 204.
104. Stuckey, Going through the Storm, 53. See also White and White, Sounds of Slavery, 8-9.
105. Wynter, “Jonkonnu in Jamaica,” 36.
106. Andrews, Afro-Argentines, 157.
107. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 243.
108. Quoted by Emery, Black Dance, 3. Emery's book has been central in my understanding of the role of dance in slave culture.
109. For the “circle of culture” and its centrality in the remaking of black experiences in slavery, see Stuckey, Slave Culture, chapter 1. For “horizontal” relationships and the construction of communities, see B. Anderson, Invented Communities, 7.
110. Quoted in Emery, Black Dance, 29.
111. Latrobe, Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 203-4.
112. Quoted in Andrews, Afro-Argentines, 161.
113. Ibid.
114. Quoted in Emery, Black Dance, 157; emphasis in the original.
115. Quoted in Andrews, Afro-Argentines, 162–63.
116. Certeau, Practice of Everyday Life, 29.
117. Long, History of Jamaica, 2:424; emphasis in the original.
118. Fink, Saine, and Saine, “Oasis of Happiness.”
119. Ibid., 19.
120. Ibid., 20.
121. Quoted in Emery, Black Dance, 21.
122. Ibid., 22.
123. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 109–40.
124. Ibid., 231.
125. Quoted in Andrews, Afro-Argentines, 162.
126. Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, 154.
127. Ibid., 187 –88.
128. Gluckman, Rituals of Rebellion, 3.
129. Ibid.
130. Ibid. N. Davies writing about female disorder and ceremonies in early modern Europe has affirmed Gluckman's conclusion: “'female disorderliness' clarified the patriarchal structure in the process of reversing it but it did not change the system”; see “Women on Top.”
131. Ladurie, Carnival in Romans, 308.
132. P. Burke, Popular Culture, 188.
133. Abrahams, Singing the Master, 87.
134. R. Thompson, “Recapturing Heaven's Glamour.”
135. Quoted in ibid., 23.
136. See Wynter, “Jonkonnu in Jamaica,” 35–36.
137. This is generally the view adopted by Dirks in Black Saturnalia.
138. Cassidy, Jamaica Talk, chapter 12.
139. For a general survey of the festival across the Atlantic, see Reid, “John Canoe Festival.”
140. Long, History of Jamaica, 2:424.
141. Cassidy, Jamaica Talk, 259.
142. Schaw, Journal of a Lady of Quality, 108.
143. See Nugent, Lady Nugent's Journal, 49.
144. Quoted in Abrahams, After Africa, 230.
145. Ibid.
146. Quoted in ibid., 231.
147. Long, History of Jamaica, 2:424.
148. Ibid.
149. Quoted in Abrahams, After Africa, 233.
150. Ibid.
151. My argument here is indebted to Bhabha's theory of mimicry; see Location of Culture, chapter 4.
152. C. Williams, Tour through the Island, 26.
153. Long, History of Jamaica, 2:424–25. These transformations are discussed by Patterson in Sociology of Slavery, 242–45. For the aesthetic strategies of John Canoe and associated festivals, see Burton, Afro-Creole, 61–81.
154. C. Williams, Tour through the Island, 22.
155. Hill, Jamaican Stage, 236.
156. R. Wright, Revels in Jamaica, 240.
157. C. Williams, Tour through the Island, 23.
158. Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, xlvix.
159. J. Stewart, View of the Past, 270–71.
160. Lewis, Journal of a West Indian Proprietor, 49–50.
161. Nugent, Lady Nugent's Journal, 49.
162. E. Thompson, “Moral Economy,” 80.
163. Ibid.
164. A. Jones and Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing, 2. For dress and costume in eighteenth-century England, see Styles, Dress of the People.
165. Hammermeister, German Aesthetic Tradition, 7.
166. A. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 214–15.
167. Collected in Moreton, West Indian Customs and Manners, 153.
168. Freud, “Negation,” 181.
169. Madden, Twelvemonth's Residence, 160–61.
170. Ibid., 161.
CODA
1. Tallmadge, “Speech of the Hon. James Tallmadge.”
2. Forbes, Missouri Compromise, 36.
3. Morrison, Playing in the Dark, 45.
4. Tallmadge, “Speech of the Hon. James Tallmadge.”
5. See Berlin and Harris, Slavery in New York.
6. Burck-Morss, Dialectics of Seeing, 161.
7. See, for example, Kranish, “At Capitol, Slavery's Story Turns.”
8. Walcott, “Forty Acres.”
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