The original numbers Drake ran were as follows: our galaxy produces ten stars per year (R* = 10); half of those stars produce planets (fP = ½); each star with planets has two suitable homes (ne = 2, although our own solar system has seven or so—Venus, Mars, Earth, and a few moons of Jupiter and Saturn); one of those planets will develop life (fl = 1); 1 percent of those planets will achieve intelligent life (fi = 1/100); 1 percent of those planets will produce post-caveman life capable of beaming signals into space (fc = 1/100); and they will do so for ten thousand years (L = 10,000). Work all that out, and you get ten civilizations trying to communicate with earth.
Opinions about those values differ, sometimes wildly. Duncan Forgan, an astrophysicist at the University of Edinburgh, recently ran a Monte Carlo simulation of the Drake Equation. He fed in random values for each of the variables, then computed the result a few thousand times to find the most probable value. Whereas Drake figured that there were ten civilizations trying to get in touch with us, Forgan calculated a total of 31,574 civilizations just in our local galaxy. The paper is available at http://arxiv.org/abs/0810.2222.
19. Above (and Beyond) the Periodic Table
“one force gains the upper hand, then the other”: The third of the four fundamental forces is the weak nuclear force, which governs how atoms undergo beta decay. It’s a curious fact that francium struggles because the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force wrestle inside it, yet the element arbitrates the struggle by appealing to the weak nuclear force.
The fourth fundamental force is gravity. The strong nuclear force is a hundred times stronger than the electromagnetic force, and the electromagnetic force is a hundred billion times stronger than the weak nuclear force. The weak nuclear force is in turn ten million billion billion times stronger than gravity. (To give you some sense of scale, that’s the same number we used to compute the rarity of astatine.) Gravity dominates our everyday lives only because the strong and weak nuclear forces have such short reach and the balance of protons and electrons around us is equal enough to cancel most electromagnetic forces.
“un·bi·bium”: After decades of scientists having to build super-heavy elements laboriously, atom by atom, in 2008 Israeli scientists claimed to have found element 122 by reverting to old-style chemistry. That is, after sifting through a natural sample of thorium, the chemical cousin of 122 on the periodic table, for months on end, a team led by Amnon Marinov claimed to have identified a number of atoms of the extra-heavy element. The crazy part about the enterprise wasn’t just the claim that such an old-fashioned method resulted in a new element; it was the claim that element 122 had a half-life of more than 100 million years! That was so crazy, in fact, that many scientists got suspicious. The claim was looking shakier and shakier, but as of late 2009, the Israelis hadn’t backed off from their claims.
“once-dominant Latin in science”: Regarding the decline of Latin, except on the periodic table: for whatever reason, when a West German team bagged element 108 in 1984, they decided to name it hassium, after the Latin name for part of Germany (Hesse), instead of naming it deutschlandium or some such thing.
“rectilinear shapes”: It’s not a new version of the periodic table, but it’s certainly a new way to present it. In Oxford, England, periodic table taxicabs and buses are running people around town. They’re painted tires to roof with different columns and rows of elements, mostly in pastel hues. The fleet is sponsored by the Oxford Science Park. You can see a picture at http://www.oxfordinspires.org/newsfromImageWorks.htm.
You can also view the periodic table in more than two hundred different languages, including dead languages like Coptic and Egyptian hieroglyphic, at http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/vyhledav/chemici2.html.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
These were far from the only books I consulted during my research, and you can find more information about my sources in the “Notes and Errata” section. These were simply the best books for a general audience, if you want to know more about the periodic table or various elements on it.
Patrick Coffey. Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry. Oxford University Press, 2008.
John Emsley. Nature’s Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Sheilla Jones. The Quantum Ten. Oxford University Press, 2008.
T. R. Reid. The Chip: How Two Americans Invented the Microchip and Launched a Revolution. Random House, 2001.
Richard Rhodes. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. Simon & Schuster, 1995.
Oliver Sacks. Awakenings. Vintage, 1999.
Eric Scerri. The Periodic Table. Oxford University Press, 2006.
Glenn Seaborg and Eric Seaborg. Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001.
Tom Zoellner. Uranium. Viking, 2009.
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
CONTENTS
Front Cover Image
Welcome
Reading Group Guide
A conversation with Sam Kean
Questions and topics for discussion
Sam Kean’s top-five favorite elements
Sam Kean’s suggestions for further reading
Introduction
PART I
ORIENTATION: COLUMN BY COLUMN, ROW BY ROW
1. Geography Is Destiny
2. Near Twins and Black Sheep: The Genealogy of Elements
3. The Galápagos of the Periodic Table
PART II
MAKING ATOMS, BREAKING ATOMS
4. Where Atoms Come From: “We Are All Star Stuff”
5. Elements in Times of War
6. Completing the Table… with a Bang
7. Extending the Table, Expanding the Cold War
PART III
PERIODIC CONFUSION: THE EMERGENCE OF COMPLEXITY
8. From Physics to Biology
9. Poisoner’s Corridor: “Ouch-Ouch”
10. Take Two Elements, Call Me in the Morning
11. How Elements Deceive
PART IV
THE ELEMENTS OF HUMAN CHARACTER
12. Political Elements
13. Elements as Money
14. Artistic Elements
15. An Element of Madness
PART V
ELEMENT SCIENCE TODAY AND TOMORROW
16. Chemistry Way, Way Below Zero
17. Spheres of Splendor: The Science of Bubbles
18. Tools of Ridiculous Precision
19. Above (and Beyond) the Periodic Table
Acknowledgments and Thanks
Notes and Errata
Bibliography
The Periodic Table of the Elements
About the Author
Extraordinary acclaim for Sam Kean’s The Disappearing Spoon
Copyright
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
SAM KEAN spent years collecting mercury from broken thermometers as a kid, and now he is a writer in Washington, DC, for Science. His work has appeared in the New York Times Magazine, Mental Floss, State, Air & Space/Smithsonian, and New Scientist, and he has been featured on National Public Radio’s All Things Considered and On Point.
Extraordinary acclaim for Sam Kean’s
THE DISAPPEARING SPOON
“Irresistible…. The Disappearing Spoon reveals history, passions, madness, and the all-out drama of our lives…. Kean is brimming with puckish wit, and his love for the elements is downright infectious…. Sure to dazzle any reader. Kean finds amazing stories attached to every element of the table…. His writing sparks like small shocks…. He gives science a whiz-bang verve so that every page becomes one you cannot wait to turn just to see what he’s going to reveal next…. Kean’s book is so rambunctious and so much fun, you’ll find yourself wanting to grab someone just to share the tidbits. But the alchemy of this book is the way Kean makes you see and experience and appreciate the world differently, with a real sense of wonder and a joy of discovery, that is downright elemental.”
—Caroline Leavitt, Boston Globe
“The best science writers bring an enthusiasm for the material that infects even those of us who wouldn’t usually give a flying photon…. Kean unpacks the periodic table’s bag of tricks with such aplomb and fascination that material normally as heavy as lead transmutes into gold…. With the anecdotal flourishes of Oliver Sacks and the populist accessibility of Malcolm Gladwell, Kean makes even the most abstract concepts graspable for armchair scientists. His keen sense of humor is a particular pleasure…. Kean succeeds in giving us the cold hard facts, both human and chemical, behind the astounding phenomena without sacrificing any of the wonder—a trait vital to any science writer worth his NaCl.”
—Keith Staskiewicz, Entertainment Weekly
“Really excellent…. I can’t recommend The Disappearing Spoon highly enough…. The stories associated with the various elements and experiments designed to test one hypothesis or another make great reading…. Get the book.”
—Jon Carroll, San Francisco Chronicle
“Sam Kean is a teacher who enlivens even the most tedious subjects by relating material to everyday life in everyday language and who exhumes juicy back stories about experiments and the people performing them…. The Disappearing Spoon has undeniably sharp science teeth…. Its information-packed chapters are infused with ebullience…. Kean jumps gleefully from one story to the next, confident in exactly how all the details fit…. His conversational prose sizzles with pop culture references and he provides surprisingly informal analogies…. Kean’s palpable enthusiasm and the thrill of knowledge and invention the book imparts can infect even the most right-brained reader.”
—Christine Thomas, Miami Herald
“Sam Kean portrays the periodic table using a cast of characters whose stories illustrate our interactions with the physical world. By weaving handfuls of tales into loose themes in each chapter, he leaves no corner of the table untouched. All readers will learn something…. Kean writes with energy and pace.”
—Philip Ball, Nature
“Ebullient…. Kean turns The Disappearing Spoon into a nonstop parade of lively science stories…. A timely conversation piece.”
—Janet Maslin, New York Times
“Kean does a remarkable job of keeping his book about the magic and horrors of chemical science jargon-free…. An ambitious but user-friendly book about the weird and wonderful world of chemical elements.”
—Dan Falk, Associated Press
“A fresh look at the elements that make up our world…. The book is peppered with anecdotes about the elements’ application and the surprisingly colorful scientists who were involved in their discovery and development. Leaving no substance in the table unexplored, Kean provides interesting and sometimes startling facts about the building blocks of the universe.”
—Daily Beast
“We’ve discovered 112 formally recognized elements, and every last one has a story—sometimes hilarious, sometimes frightening—to tell. The Disappearing Spoon recounts the discovery and use of every last element, introducing us to some of science’s most colorful and eccentric figures…. This isn’t just about the lighter side of the periodic table, as Kean also uses these anecdotes to help explain just why elements behave the way that they do.”
—Alasdair Wilkins, io9.com
“Thoughtful, engrossing…. Whether a scientist, historian, or gossip queen, there is something for almost every kind of reader here.”
—Kate Quealy-Gainer, Minneapolis Star Tribune
“Fascinating…. The book is written in such a way that readers won’t need to bone up on their chemistry to understand the science. And those who do remember their chem class days won’t be bored since the book is filled with so many stories from such a range of areas of history, from war to biology to literature.”
—Sarah Zielinski, Smithsonian
“That mystifying chart on the wall in high school chem class, decoded.”
—Los Angeles Times
“The book is strong, a simple, well-written collection of comic, tragic, and just plain strange stories starring the members of the periodic table.”
—Samantha Nelson, The Onion’s A.V. Club
“Sam Kean has done something remarkable: he’s made some highly technical science accessible, placed well-known and lesser-known discoveries in the context of history, and made reading about the lives of the men and women inside the lab coats enjoyable…. The stories are fascinating…. Kean’s a great yarn spinner.”
—Andy Alford, Austin American-Statesman
“Like all good science writers, Kean is fired by boundless curiosity and gee-whiz wonder, not just at the physical universe but also at humankind’s untiring attempts to figure it out.”
—Alison Gillmor, Winnipeg Free Press
“An engaging tour of the elements…. Kean mostly revels in the wonderful weirdness of the elements themselves.”
—Jennifer Schuessler, New York Times Book Review
“A parade of entertaining anecdotes about scientists (mad and otherwise)…. With a constant flow of fun facts bubbling to the surface, Kean writes with wit, flair, and authority.”
—Publishers Weekly
“Quirky, thoughtful, and thorough…. If your most recent glance at the periodic table was in a classroom long ago, have no fear, this book is threaded with plots more often found in love stories or thrillers than in chemistry books, and Kean’s enthusiasm and wit carry the reader through spells of heavy lifting. Even hard-core chemists will undoubtedly learn something new.”
—Rachel Ehrenberg, ScienceNews
“Few of us would ever associate the periodic table of the elements with high intrigue. But as Sam Kean details, behind those lettered boxes lies a sordid past.”
—Fenella Saunders, American Scientist
“Fascinating…. Kean writes in a whimsical yet easy-to-read style…. Highly recommended for public libraries and for amateur, high school, and undergraduate scientists wishing to be informed as well as entertained.”
—Ian D. Gordon, Library Journal
“Who knew the periodic table was riveting, shocking, and even funny? There are lots of gripping details in The Disappearing Spoon.”
—Rebecca Sodergren, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
“The title sets the tone for this witty, anecdote-filled book about the role elements have played in science, art, war, commerce, medicine, literature, and other fields…. The Disappearing Spoon is my favorite kind of science journalism: it reveals a hidden universe in the form of a thrilling tale.”
—Mark Frauenfelder, boingboing.net
“Marvelous…. The science is fascinating; the stories amazing, astounding, and sometimes tragic; and Kean’s enthusiastic wit runs throughout the book. If you thought you wouldn’t be captivated by a science book, think again. The Disappearing Spoon will change your mind.”
—Marilyn Dahl, Shelf Awareness
“An informative and witty look at the history of the periodic table…. Kean entertains and enlightens us.”
—Tim O’Connell, Florida Times-Union
“Fascinating…. Kean has Bill Bryson’s comic touch…. A lively history of the elements and the characters behind their discovery.”
—Clint Witchalls, New Scientist
“An idiosyncratic romp…. The author is a great raconteur with plenty of stories to tell…. Nearly 150 years of wide-ranging science, in fact, and Kean makes it all interesting. Entertaining and enlightening.”
—Kirkus Reviews
“Sam Kean’s informative and engaging book amply demonstrates that the periodic table can provide a starting point for stories involving history, politics, literature, and art as well as a wide range of human passion, adventure, folly, and treachery…. Kean writes in a brisk, jaunty style and often uses analogies from daily life.”
—Science
“True to its title, The Disappearing Spoon is full of awesome and intriguing facts and tales related to the periodic table�
��. This book definitely belongs in high school chemistry labs. After all, everybody—even a seemingly disinterested high school student—loves a good yarn.”
—Poornima Apte, Mostly Fiction Book Reviews
“The Disappearing Spoon brings the periodic table to life. It’s crammed full of compelling anecdotes about each of the elements, plenty of nerd-gossip involving the Nobel Prizes, and enough political intrigue to capture the interest of the anti-elemental among us. With 117 elements currently listed in the periodic table, the task of chronicling their discoveries and applications is nothing short of herculean, but Kean not only accomplishes the labor admirably but structures it in such a way that makes the journey through the table a joy rather than a slog…. Kean leaves readers with a satisfying evolutionary sense of the periodic table and its future.”
—Michael Paul Mason, Galleycat
* This and all upcoming asterisks refer to the Notes and Errata section, which begins on here and continues the discussion of various interesting points. Also, if you need to refer to a periodic table, see here.
Copyright
Copyright © 2010 by Sam Kean
Reading group guide copyright © 2011 by Sam Kean and Little, Brown and Company
All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the U.S. Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
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Second eBook Edition: June 2011
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