Moses told the conference that Greenwood had glimpsed a miracle when five hundred sharecroppers tried to register instead of five. “For us that’s a big number,” he said. “That’s a big breakthrough.” Nevertheless, he speculated that they needed “not five hundred but five thousand going down.” Even then, no one could predict the result nor be sure even where to look for guiding clues—in courtrooms, cotton prices, national news stories, churches full of fresh courage, or in the eyes of white policemen.
Back in Greenwood, Annell Ponder lost no time gathering up applicants for advanced citizenship training from Septima Clark. Belle Johnson flatly refused to allow her daughter June to make another long trip—at least until the end of the school year—but Fannie Lou Hamer signed up for the April workshop. In Hattiesburg, Victoria Gray learned of the teacher classes from Vernon Dahmer, who passed along what he heard from Hollis Watkins. With her brother and J. C. Fairley of the NAACP, Gray recently visited the Clyde Kennard home to gather supporting facts for a clemency petition, only to be stunned by the skeletal visage of Kennard himself in his mother’s rocker. Without notice or announcement, Governor Barnett had “indefinitely suspended” his sentence, almost certainly to avoid the minor embarrassment of having Kennard die in state custody. Of all the colliding shocks the visitors absorbed—the joy of unexpected freedom, the horror of a young man eaten with cancer—what transfixed Victoria Gray was his gentle recollections of outrages committed against him. His unnatural lack of bitterness disturbed her to the point that she remarked on it with a hint of criticism. “No, I’m not angry,” Kennard replied. “Not anymore. I’m just very, very thankful to be home.” Afterward, Gray could not decide whether this was the serenity of approaching death or something else beyond hatred and fear. It reminded her of the strangely clear energy from young Hollis Watkins at her first mass meeting. A nagging attraction sealed her resolve to let Beauty Queen run itself for a week, and when no one else from southern Mississippi would go, she hitched a ride alone north to Greenwood and, with Fannie Lou Hamer, boarded Annell Ponder’s bus bound for SCLC’s retreat near Savannah.
6
Tremors: L.A. to Selma
JAMES BEVEL was in Birmingham by then, summoned by Martin Luther King. With Diane Nash and their eight-month-old daughter, Bevel arrived from Greenwood just in time to preach at the April 12 mass meeting in place of King, who had submitted to solitary confinement that afternoon. The carefully planned Birmingham campaign was in crisis. Over the next week, Bevel and Nash pitched in behind King’s exacting administrator, Wyatt Walker, who labored to keep pace with chaos on many fronts—lobbying for some hint of public support from the Kennedys, cultivating reporters and distant celebrities, coaxing forward new jail volunteers, weeding out laggards and training the rest in nonviolence for the daily marches toward the forbidden landmarks of segregated commerce.
One of Walker’s tactical innovations presented an opportunity uniquely suited to Bevel. Walker demanded punctuality in the daily demonstrations until he noticed while fuming through the inevitable delays that news reporters often lumped Negro bystanders together with actual jail marchers in their crowd estimates. After that, Walker went against his nature to hold up the marches with deliberate tardiness, so that daily stories of growing crowds could disguise the dwindling number willing to accept jail. As the delays stretched past school hours, crowds began to fill with Bevel’s preferred recruits—Negro students.
To Bevel, looking past the arrests to the teenagers in the background, the flagging demonstrations already had accomplished the work of many months in the Mississippi Delta, where the bulk of the Negro population was widely dispersed on rural plantations: they had gathered a crowd. With Nash and student volunteers, he distributed handbills advertising a daily youth meeting at five o’clock, two hours before the regular seven o’clock mass meeting. There he preached on the meaning of the primal events downtown. His crowds grew so rapidly that Andrew Young helped run the youth meetings, and Dorothy Cotton, Young’s assistant in the SCLC citizenship program, led the singing. Following his practice in Mississippi, Bevel showed a film—an NBC White Paper on the Nashville student movement of 1960, which featured the stirring, climactic march of four thousand students that had desegregated Nashville’s libraries and lunch counters. By April 20, when King and Abernathy bonded out of the Birmingham jail, the youth meeting already surpassed the adult meeting in numbers. By April 23, when reporters again failed to ask President Kennedy about Birmingham at his press conference, the adult mass meeting first packed St. James Baptist Church because the students in a mass stayed over from their own session. By April 26, when the jail march was reduced to a handful, forcing Fred Shuttlesworth to play for time by announcing a massive new phase to begin on May 2, most of the jail volunteers who rose in the mass meeting came from the youth workshops.
King praised the children for their courage but told them to sit down. The Birmingham jail was no place for them. At the nightly strategy sessions, King and the other leaders flailed among themselves to devise a master stroke for May 2 that might hold off the movement’s extinction—a hunger strike or perhaps a jail march by Negro preachers in robes. No idea promised to crack the reserve of the outside world. Sensing their exhaustion from the other side, Birmingham’s white leaders rallied to the “velvet hammer” policy of firm but nonsensational resistance, and the local newspaper published an article of encouragement entitled “Greenwood Rolled with the Punch—And Won.” King’s sessions grew more rancorous. They were promising their followers and the national press nothing less than “a nonviolent D-Day” on May 2, but all the thunder of preachers and the honey of massed choirs pulled no more than forty or fifty volunteers from the pews, Wyatt Walker admitted. He bristled at Bevel’s claims that the youth meetings were spilling over into another church almost every day. Walker resented Bevel as an upstart, an intruder, and a free spirit who played loose with the chain of command.
Still, Walker was a man of results. Having come into Birmingham with only minority support from the Negro adults of Birmingham, and having delivered mostly suffering and disappointment since then, King and Shuttlesworth already were fending off internal pressures to evacuate gracefully. Backbiters predicted that the outsiders would leave Birmingham Negroes worse off than ever, with segregation hardened by the besieged anger of whites. Worse, Bevel’s proposal would leave the best of the next generation with criminal records, not to mention the psychological scars of wide-eyed children dragged into the inferno of a segregated jail. King’s host family in Birmingham, John and Deenie Drew of a prominent insurance family, resolved to send their children off to boarding school lest they get caught up in the trouble. Like most of King’s strongest supporters, they would have recoiled in horror had they known that Bevel aimed to use not just the older teenagers but also the junior high students on down to “the babies” just out of kindergarten. What dismayed much of the senior staff was not so much that King, smiling and noncommittal, insisted on hearing Bevel out, but that King seemed to respect the “voices” Bevel heard even when they urged him to subvert the damaged authority of Negro Birmingham through its children. “Against your Mama,” Bevel told King, “you have a right to make this witness.”
When the doors of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church opened shortly after one o’clock on Thursday, May 2, a line of fifty teenagers emerged two abreast, singing. The waiting police detail hauled them into jail wagons, as usual, and only the youth of the demonstrators distinguished the day until a second line emerged, then a third and many more. Children as young as six years old held their ground until arrested. Amid mounting confusion, police commanders called in school buses for jail transport and sent reinforcements to intercept stray lines that slipped past them toward the downtown business district. On the first day, nearly a thousand marching children converted first the Negro adults. Not a few of the onlookers in Kelly Ingram Park were dismayed to see their own disobedient offspring in the line, and the conflicting emotions of ce
nturies played out on their faces until some finally gave way. One elderly woman ran alongside the arrest line, shouting, “Sing, children, sing!”
WITH THE JAILS swamped by nightfall, Bull Connor ordered a massed phalanx of officers to disperse rather than arrest any demonstrators King might send the next day—intimidate them, shoo them away. When more than a thousand new children turned out in high-spirited, nonviolent discipline, giving no ground, frustration and hatred erupted under Connor’s command. Police dogs tore into the march lines, and high-powered fire hoses knocked children along the pavement like tumbleweed. News photographs of the violence seized millions of distant eyes, shattering inner defenses. In Birmingham, the Negro principal of Parker High School desperately locked the gates from the outside to preserve a semblance of order, but students trampled the chain-link fence to join the demonstrations.
King, preaching at night to a serial mass meeting that spilled from one packed church to another, urged crowds to remember the feel of history among them. He cast aside his innate caution along with criticism and worry over the children in jail, shouting, “Now yesterday was D-Day, and tomorrow will be Double-D Day!” From Shuttlesworth’s old pulpit, Bevel cried out in playful hyperbole that they would finish off Birmingham before Tuesday by placing every Negro young and old in jail so that he could be “back in Mississippi, chopping cotton.” Bevel did not make his deadline, but nonviolent Negroes did overflow the jails and flood the forbidden downtown streets within a week. By Monday, May 6, the sudden conversion gushed from child to adult until no fewer than 2,500 demonstrators swamped the Birmingham jail, and King welcomed in awe the tangible sensation of history spilling over at frenzied mass meetings of four times that number.
SOMETHING PRIMAL welled up the same day in a Los Angeles courtroom. Defense lawyer Earl Broady faltered while cross-examining Officer Lee Logan about the mayhem at the Muslim Temple No. 27 in April of 1962. “Now this ‘male Negro’ business, this is significant to you, isn’t it?” asked Broady in a whisper, his face suddenly clouded. “‘Male Negroes,’” he repeated. When Logan replied that the term was merely descriptive of the brawlers that violent night, Broady tried to resume his planned examination but stopped again. “You called them niggers while you were in this fight with them, didn’t you?” he blurted out.
“I did not,” Logan replied.
Broady asked for time to compose himself, but he called for a bench conference as soon as Logan testified that his first sight at the crime scene was “several male Negroes” fighting with officers a block south of the Muslim temple. “Your Honor, I believe these defendants should be referred to exactly the same as if they were Caucasians,” said Broady. “This officer wouldn’t refer to male Jews. He wouldn’t refer to male Irishmen. He wouldn’t refer to male Swedes. He wouldn’t refer to male Caucasians.”
Judge David Coleman hushed stirrings in the courtroom and spoke gently to Broady, whom he had known for years, observing that race was a standard designation in all police reports. “This issue has been made by the defense and not by the People,” said the judge, who went on to remind Broady that the defense lawyers had tried to insert a racial standard by objecting, for instance, to the all-white jury. (On that matter, Judge Coleman had assured Broady privately that the all-white jury was probably best because most Negro jurors were too emotional to be objective about such a sensational case.) Broady argued that the drumbeat repetition of generic racial phrases was far from neutral in effect, and spread a blur of prejudicial guilt over all Negroes, including the fourteen Muslims on trial. “This man has said ‘male Negroes’ eleven times,” Broady protested. “We kept an accurate count on it.”
Judge Coleman chided Broady for insecurity. “Someday we will get to a period of confidence and respect for ourselves,” he said at the bench, “when a reference to us as Negroes, Jews, or anything else…will not be a matter that disturbs us very much, but it would be in effect something which we are very proud of.”
Unable to reply, Broady walked back to the defense table and stood paralyzed for some time. Perversely, the judge’s rebuttal struck deep within him. As dean of Negro lawyers in Los Angeles, Broady had spent years believing that to speak and think as a Negro was to confess inferiority, and that to think white was clear and refined. Recently, when business required him to talk with the employer of a criminal defendant, Broady had found himself cringing involuntarily in manner and speech—“yessiring”—to a Beverly Hills neighbor he claimed as a peer. Only then did he begin to admit that he was learning lessons from bootblacks and reformed thieves. For a month now—as long as King had campaigned in Birmingham—up to 250 armed deputies had guarded the courtroom against tinderbox fears of a race riot, and yet only the fourteen Muslim defendants spoke forthrightly of race. They sat in perfect order at the defense table a few rows ahead of Malcolm X, as crisp as their Muslim suits. Each testified with unflinching discipline about degradations—their broken homes, poor educations, and criminal records, their loss of bladder or bowel control after the shootings outside the temple. Broady had come to admire them in spite of their religious hokum, as he saw it, but he could not push race to the surface and hope to win in court.
“Your Honor,” he said finally, “…I don’t feel I can continue this cross-examination.” Broady later minimized his breakdown as a suppressed fit of temper, telling reporters he feared he “might pull a Muslim” if he spoke, but at the defense table he could only bury his face in his hands while his co-counsel gamely took over.
The two sides skittered back and forth on the open mention of race. Prosecutors occasionally slipped in loaded questions: “As a Muslim, Mr. Jones, does the phrase ‘kill the white devils’ have any significance?” A deputy DA was careful to ask one question of Officer Paul Kuykendall: “Just for the record, are you of the Negro race?” Kuykendall’s positive response established that one of the government’s police witnesses was a Negro, much to the discomfort of Kuykendall himself. Within the department, he no longer could pass as a white officer. Acid doubt about Kuykendall’s moment of hesitation in that night’s death struggle between Officer Lee Logan and Muslim Arthur X Coleman—sparing Coleman’s life in exchange for even an instant’s added danger to Logan—dissolved fraternal trust among police for Kuykendall, while practically no Negroes allowed him offsetting credit for professionalism or humanity. Kuykendall was to remain a morose figure, stranded in a cloud of isolation.
For the defense, Broady did ask teenage defendant Troy X Augustine if he could have used the word “Negro,” among others, as recorded in a disputed statement. “No, sir,” Augustine replied. Asked why, he said, “Ever since I have found out what Negro means, I stopped calling people that.” Broady cut off the testimony before Augustine could explain, however, and a prosecutor made sport of the inconsistency, saying the defense wanted to discuss race some times and not others. Broady could not afford testimony on the meaning of “Negro” because it would open the treacherous subject of Elijah Muhammad’s Muslim teachings. Members of the Nation of Islam strictly and exclusively used the term “black” instead of “Negro,” the Spanish word for “black,” saying it was as absurd for them to ground racial identity in a foreign language* as it would be for white people to call themselves “Blancos.”
Most of the testimony re-created the chaotic violence of April 27 as mirror images of primeval savagery, with each side portraying itself as victim. Medical testimony lent some support to the dramatic accounts of police suffering, especially early in the altercation when Tomlinson was shot and Kensic badly beaten. As descriptions moved to the later shootings and reprisals inside the temple, however, officers seemed to have emerged remarkably unscathed from the mass attack. Officer Reynolds had a thumb injury, which defense counsel suggested was the result of his own aggressions. As for the defense, Muslim witnesses consistently denied that they ever saw any fellow Muslim fighting back against the officers. They embraced their wounds and their lack of weapons as the anchor strength of their testimony, di
scarding Elijah Muhammad’s posture of virile self-defense along with his militant sarcasm about the cowardly weakness of the nonviolent movement. Malcolm X coached all the defendants, demanding precision of testimony and a uniform politeness under the most scathing hostility. In the crucible of trial, they displayed an air of acceptance that bordered on forgiveness.
Small wonders took seed in the obscure Muslim trial just as nonviolence seized the emotions of the larger world from Birmingham. King’s demonstrators literally carpeted Birmingham’s downtown business district that second week of May. Having no place to put them, police officers in their midst shrugged helplessly to the city’s business leaders, who were traumatized by the sudden evaporation of normalcy and commerce alike. Nearly two hundred reporters had converged from as far away as Germany and Japan. “We are not sitting idly by,” President Kennedy’s spokesman announced tersely in Washington. “We just can’t say anything.” Privately, Kennedy and several members of his Cabinet were calling the heads of corporations with subsidiaries in Birmingham, urging them to enter negotiations with King, and on Friday, May 10, Fred Shuttlesworth announced triumphantly that Birmingham “has reached accord with its conscience.” Birmingham’s merchants had accepted a schedule for desegregating their dressing rooms and lunch counters—even hiring Negro clerks. “Now this is an amazing thing!” King cried out at the mass meeting.
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