In Mongolia and round about it new tribes of nomads were growing in number and in power. Two hundred years later they were to sweep across Asia. Even now the dominant races in Central and western Asia had come from that Central Asian breeding-ground of nomads. The Chinese had driven them west and they had spread, some down to India, some to Europe. We now find the Seljuq Turks, driven west, reviving the fortune of the Baghdad Empire, and attacking and defeating the Eastern Roman Empire of Constantinople.
So much for Asia. Across the Red Sea was Egypt, independent of Baghdad. The Muslim ruler there had declared himself a separate Caliph. North Africa was also under independent Muslim rule. Across the Straits of Gibraltar in Spain there was also an independent Muslim State, the Emirate of Kurtuba or Cordoba. About this I shall have to tell you something later. But you know already that Spain refused to submit to the Abbaside Caliphs when they came to power. Ever since then it had been independent. Its attempts to conquer France had, long before, been checkmated by Charles Martel. It was now the turn of Christian States in the northern part of Spain to attack the Muslims, and they attacked with more and more confidence as time went on. But, at the time that we are speaking of, the Emirate of Cordoba was a great and progressive State, far in advance of the countries of Europe, in civilization and science.
Europe, apart from Spain, was divided up now into a number of Christian States. Christianity had by this time spread all over the continent and the old religions of heroes and gods and goddesses had almost vanished from Europe. We can see the modern countries of Europe taking shape. France appears under Hugh Capet in 987 AC. In England, Canute the Dane, who is famous for his command to the waves of the sea to go back, ruled in 1016 and fifty years later William the Conqueror came from Normandy. Germany was part of the Holy Roman Empire, but it was definitely becoming one country, although it was still divided up into many smaller States. Russia was spreading in the east and often threatening Constantinople with her ships. This was the beginning of the strange fascination for Constantinople which Russia has always felt. She has coveted this great city for 1000 years and hoped at last to get it as the result of the Great War which ended fourteen years ago. But the Revolution came suddenly and upset all the plans of old Russia.
You will also see on the map of Europe of 900 years ago Poland and Hungary, where the Magyars lived, and the kingdoms of the Bulgarians and Serbs. And, of course, you will see the Eastern Roman Empire surrounded by a host of enemies, but still carrying on. The Russians attacked it, the Bulgarians annoyed it, the Normans harassed it continually by sea, and now, most dangerous of all, the Seljuq Turks threatened its very life. But it was not going to collapse for another 400 years, in spite of all these enemies and difficulties. This amazing persistence is partly explained by the strength of the position of Constantinople. It was so well situated that it was difficult for an enemy to take it. Partly also it is explained by the discovery by the Greeks of a new method of defence. This was what was called “Greek Fire”; it was some stuff which caught fire when it touched water. By means of this Greek fire the people of Constantinople played havoc with the invading armies which tried to cross the Bosphorus by setting fire to their ships.
Such was the map of Europe after the first 1000 years of the Christian era. You would have found also the Northmen or Normans coming down in their ships and harassing and plundering towns on the sea coasts in the Mediterranean and ships on the high seas. They were, indeed, becoming respectable by success. In France they had established themselves in Normandy in the west; England they had conquered from their base in France; the island of Sicily they conquered from the Muslims and added to it South Italy, making a kingdom called the Kingdom of Sicilia.
In the centre of Europe, from the North Sea to Rome, sprawled the Holy Roman Empire, consisting of many States with one head, the Emperor. Between this German Emperor and the Pope of Rome there was a continuous tussle for mastery. Sometimes the Emperor prevailed, sometimes the Pope, but gradually the Popes increased in power. In their threat of excommunication—that is, to cast a man out of society and make an outlaw of him—they had a terrible weapon. One proud emperor, indeed, was brought so low by the Pope of the day that to beg forgiveness he had to go barefoot in the snow and to wait thus outside the Pope’s residence at Canossa in Italy till the Pope was kind enough to admit him!
We see these countries of Europe fashioning out, but they would be very different from what they are today, and especially their people would be different. They would hardly speak of themselves as Frenchmen, or Englishmen, or Germans. The poor cultivators were a miserable lot and knew nothing of country or geography. All they knew was that they were the serfs of their lord and must do the lord’s bidding. The nobles, if you asked them who they were, would tell you that they were the lords of this or that place and the vassals of some superior lord or of the king. This was the feudal system which spread all over Europe.
Gradually we find large cities growing in Germany and northern Italy especially. Paris also was a prominent city then. These cities are the centres of trade and commerce, and wealth accumulates there. The cities do not like the feudal lords, and there is always a tussle between the two, but money tells in the end. With the help of their money, which they lend to the lords, they buy privileges and power. And so slowly a new class grows in the city which does not fit in with the feudal system.
Thus we find that society in Europe is divided up in layers according to the feudal pattern, and even the Church gives its sanction and blessing to this order. There is no feeling of nationality. But there is a certain feeling all over Europe, especially amongst the upper classes, an idea of Christendom, something which unites the Christian nations of Europe. The Church helps to spread this idea, for it strengthens the Church and increases the power of the Pope of Rome, who is now the unquestioned head of the Church in western Europe. You will remember that Rome had cut itself away from Constantinople and the Eastern Roman Empire. Constantinople still continued its old Orthodox Church and Russia also took its religion from it. The Pope was not recognized by the Greeks of Constantinople.
But in the hour of peril, when Constantinople was surrounded by enemies, and more especially threatened by the Seljuq Turks, it forgot its pride and its hatred of Rome, and appealed to the Pope for help against the Muslim infidel. Rome had a great Pope then—Hildebrande, who became Pope Gregory the Seventh. It was Hildebrande before whom the proud German Emperor had appeared barefoot in the snow at Canossa.
Another event had excited the imagination of Christian Europe then. Many devout Christians believed that the world would come to a sudden end just 1000 years after Christ. The word millennium means a thousand years. It comes from two Latin words: mille meaning thousand, and annus, year. As the end of the world was expected then, the millennium came to mean a sudden change to a better world. As I have told you, there was great misery then in Europe, and this prospect of the “millennium” brought relief to many a weary person. Many sold up their lands and journeyed to Palestine to be present in their Holy Land when the end of the world came.
But the end of the world did not come, and the thousands of pilgrims who had journeyed to Jerusalem were ill-treated and harassed by the Turks. They returned to Europe full of anger and humiliation, and spread the story of their sufferings in the Holy Land. One famous pilgrim, Peter the Hermit, especially, went about, staff in hand, preaching to the people to rescue their holy city from the Muslims. Indignation and enthusiasm grew in Christendom, and, seeing this, the Pope decided to lead the movement.
About this time had come the appeal from Constantinople for help against the infidel. All Christendom, both Roman and Greek, now seemed to be ranged against the oncoming Turks. In 1095 a great Church Council decided to proclaim a holy war against the Muslims for the recovery of the Holy City of Jerusalem. Thus began the Crusades—the fight of Christendom against Islam, of the Cross against the Crescent.
58
Another Look at Asia and Europe
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June 12, 1932
We have finished our brief survey of the world—of Asia and Europe and a bit of Africa—at the end of 1000 years after Christ. But look again.
Asia. The old civilizations of India and China still continue and flourish. Indian culture spreads to Malaysia and Cambodia and brings rich fruit there. Chinese culture spreads to Korea and Japan and, to some extent, Malaysia. In western Asia, Arabian culture prevails in Arabia, Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia; in Persia or Iran, there is a mixture of the old Iranian and the newer Arabian civilization. Some of the countries of Central Asia have also imbibed this mixed Iranian-Arabian civilization, and have also been influenced by India and China. In all these countries there is a high level of civilization; trade and learning and the arts flourish; great cities abound; and famous universities attract students from afar. Only in Mongolia and in some parts of Central Asia, as well as in Siberia in the north, is the level of civilization low.
Europe now. It is backward and semi-barbarous compared to the progressive countries of Asia. The old Graeco-Roman civilization is just a memory of the distant past. Learning is at a discount; the arts are not much in evidence; and trade is far less than in Asia. There are two bright spots. Spain, under the Arabs, carries on the traditions of the great days of the Arabs, and Constantinople, even in her slow decay, is a great and populous city, sitting on the border, between Asia and Europe. Over the greater part of Europe there is frequent disorder and, under the feudal system which prevails, each knight and lord is a little king in his domain. Rome, the imperial capital of old, at one time had been hardly bigger than a village, and wild animals had lived in its old Colosseum. But it is growing again.
So if you compared the two, Asia and Europe, 1000 years after Christ, the comparison would have been greatly to the advantage of Asia.
Let us have another look and try to see below the surface of things. We find that all is not so well with Asia as a superficial observer might imagine. India and China, the two cradles of ancient civilization, are in trouble. Their troubles are not merely those of invasion from outside, but the more real troubles which sap away the inner life and strength. The Arabs in the west have come to the end of their great days. It is true that the Seljuqs rise to power, but their rise is simply due to their fighting qualities. They do not, like the Indians or Chinese or Persians or Arabs, represent the culture of Asia, but the fighting quality of Asia. Everywhere in Asia the old cultured races seem to be shrinking. They have lost confidence in themselves and are on the defensive. New peoples arise, strong and full of energy, who conquer these old races in Asia, and even threaten Europe. But they do not bring a new wave of civilization with them or a new impetus for culture. The old races slowly civilize them and assimilate their conquerors.
So we see a great change coming over Asia. While the old civilizations continue and the fine arts flourish and there are refinements in luxury, the pulse of civilization weakens, and the breath of life seems to grow less and less. For long they are to continue. There is no definite break or end to them, except in Arabia and Central Asia when the Mongols come. In China and India there is a slow fading off, till the old civilization becomes like a painted picture, beautiful to look at from a distance, but lifeless; and if you come near it, you see that the white ants have been at it.
Civilizations, like empires, fall, not so much because of the strength of the enemy outside, as through the weakness and decay within. Rome fell not because of the barbarians; they merely knocked down something that was already dead. The heart of Rome had ceased beating when the arms and legs were cut off. We see something of this process in India and China and in the case of the Arabs. The collapse of Arabian civilization was sudden, even as their rise had been. In India and China the process is long-drawn-out and it is not easy to spot it.
Long before Mahmud of Ghazni came to India this process had started. We can see the change in the minds of the people. Instead of creating new ideas and things, the people of India busied themselves with repetition and imitation of what had been done. Their minds were keen enough still, but they busied themselves in interpreting and explaining what had been said and written long ago. They still produced wonderful sculpture and carvings, but they were heavy with too much detail and ornament, and often almost a touch of the grotesque crept in. Originality was absent and so was bold and noble design. The polished graces and arts and luxury continued among the rich and the well-todo, but little was done to relieve the toil and misery of the people as a whole or to increase production.
All these are the signs of the evening of a civilization. When this takes place you may be sure that the life of that civilization is vanishing; for creation is the sign of life, not repetition and imitation.
Some such processes are in evidence in China and India then. But do not mistake me. I do not mean that China or India cease to be because of this or relapse into barbarism. I mean that the old urge of the creative spirit that China and India had received in the past was exhausting its energy and not renewing itself. It was not adapting itself to changed surroundings; it was merely carrying on. This happens with every country and civilization. There are periods of great creative effort and growth and periods of exhaustion. It is amazing that in India and China the exhaustion came so late, and, even so, it has never been complete.
Islam brought a new impulse for human progress to India. To some extent it served as a tonic. It shook up India. But it did less good than it might have done because of two reasons. It came in the wrong way, and it came rather late. For hundreds of years before Mahmud of Ghazni raided India, Muslim missionaries had wandered about India and had been welcomed. They came in peace and had some success. There was little, if any, ill-feeling against Islam. Then came Mahmud with fire and sword, and the manner of his coming as a conqueror and a plunderer and killer injured the reputation of Islam in India more than anything else. He was, of course, just like any other great conqueror, killing and plundering, and caring little for religion. But for a very long time his raids overshadowed Islam in India and made it difficult for people to consider it dispassionately, as they might otherwise have done.
This was one reason. The other was that it came late. It came about 400 years after it began, and during this long period it had exhausted itself somewhat, and lost a great deal of its creative energy. If the Arabs had come to India with Islam in the early days, the rising Arabian culture would have mixed with the old Indian culture and the two would have acted and reacted on each other, with great consequences. It would have been the mixing of two cultured races; and the Arabs were well known for their toleration and rationalism in religion. At one period, indeed, there was a club in Baghdad, under the patronage of the Caliph, where men of all religions and no religion met together to discuss and debate about all matters from the point of view of rationalism alone.
But the Arabs did not come to India proper. They stopped in Sindh, and India was little influenced by them. Islam came to India through the Turks and others who did not have the tolerance or the culture of the Arab, and who were primarily soldiers.
Still, a new impulse came to India for progress and creative effort. How this put some new life in India and then worked itself out, we shall consider later.
Another result of the weakening of Indian civilization is now in evidence. Attacked from outside, it sought to defend itself against the incoming tide by building a shell round itself and almost imprisoning itself. This again was a sign of weakness and fear; and the remedy only increased the disease. The real disease was not foreign invasion, but stagnation. By this exclusiveness the stagnation grew and all avenues of growth were stopped. Later we shall see that China did this also in its own way, and so did Japan. It is a little dangerous to live in a society which is closed up like a shell. We petrify there and grow unaccustomed to fresh air and fresh ideas. Fresh air is as necessary for societies as for individuals.
So much for Asia. Europe, we saw, was backward and quarrelsome at that time. But
behind all this disorder and uncouthness you can detect energy at least and life. Asia, after her long dominance, was on the down-
grade; Europe was struggling up. But she had still far to go before she could come up anywhere near Asia’s level.
Today Europe is dominant and Asia struggles painfully for freedom. Yet look below the surface again. You will find a new energy in Asia, a new creative spirit, and a new life. Asia is up again, there can be no doubt. And Europe, or rather western Europe, in spite of her greatness, shows some signs of decay. There are no barbarians who are strong enough to destroy European civilization. But sometimes civilized people themselves act barbarously, and if this happens, civilization may destroy itself.
I talk of Asia and Europe. But they are just geographical expressions, and the problems that face us are not Asiatic or European problems, but world problems or problems of humanity. And unless we solve them for the whole world, there will continue to be trouble. Such a solution can only mean the ending of poverty and misery everywhere. This may take a long time, but we must aim at this, and at nothing less than this. Only then can we have real culture and civilization based on equality, where there is no exploitation of any country or class. Such a society will be a creative and progressive society, adapting itself to changing circumstances, and basing itself on the co-operation of its members. And ultimately it must spread all over the world. There will be no danger of such a civilization collapsing or decaying, as the old civilizations did.
So while we struggle for the freedom of India, we must remember that the great aim is human freedom, which includes the freedom of our people as well as other peoples.
Glimpses of World History Page 27
