14.Ibid.
15.Edmond Taylor, The Strategy of Terror. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1940. See pp. 40–41 for Taylor’s published views on anti-Semitism and pp. 111–13 on German use of “peace offensive” tactics. Taylor’s book was republished in an updated version in 1942 by Pocket Books; see pp. 270–71 for Taylor’s views on factions within U.S. government.
16.Dulles’s claim of splitting tactics: OSS Headquarters to Bern, April 26, 1943 (Secret), file “D27 Bern Out June 42–Oct. 43,” Wash Reg. R&C-56, box 165, entry 134, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC. Hohenlohe and Schellenberg’s claims: “Aufzeichung über Aussprachen mit Mr. Bull [Dulles] und Mr. Roberts [Edmond Taylor],” op. cit., and Walter Schellenberg, Hitler’s Secret Service (originally titled The Labyrinth). New York: Pyramid, 1958, pp. 369–83 passim.
17.See, for example: Dulles to OSS Headquarters and to Secretary of State, April 7, 1943 (Secret), IN D27 #1 June 42–July 43, box 171, entry 134, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC. Dulles’s most frequent argument was that if the U.S. failed to act, there were “powerful elements” among the Nazis who “are prepared to cast their lot with Russia on the theory that a Communist Germany eventually could reestablish itself as a great power by aligning itself temporarily with Russia, whereas were Germany to be defeated and be subjected to occupation by the powers of the West, it would, for generations to come, be reduced to a power of secondary position” (loc. cit.).
18.OSS Headquarters cabled to Bern on March 10, 1943: “In reference to the [Hohenlohe] situation, your discussions and contacts have been brought to Adolf’s attention [Adolf Berle, then in charge of special war problems at the State Department]. Adolf is taking them across the street [to the White House].… The general reliability of the Max [Hohenlohe] referred to in our cable … has been confirmed through further information from Zulu sources [British intelligence]. Perhaps you will want to investigate this contact should we decide to begin the negotiation phase”; file “To Bern June 23, 1942—October 30, 1943, CD 1366-out 4438,” box 165, entry 134, RG 226 National Archives, Washington, DC. See also OSS to Bern, March 15, 1943 (Secret), loc. cit.
19.See, for example, Dulles writing on November 21, 1943: “There is a high degree of possibility that Himmler might use Max [Hohenlohe] for feelers of major importance … he can be of use to us.… His property interests are his main concern. He is aware that these interests are better guarded if he plays with our side than if he is too closely identified with the Nazis”; in Bern to OSS Headquarters, November 21, 1943 (Secret), Wash RG-RC-60-61, box 170, entry 134, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC.
20.OSS Headquarters to Bern, April 26, 1943 (Secret), file “D27 Bern Out June 42–Oct. 43,” Wash Reg. R&C-56, box 165, entry 134, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC.
21.Heinz Hohne (Richard Barry, trans.), Order of the Death’s Head. New York: Ballantine, 1971, pp. 591–609 passim; Schellenberg, op. cit., pp. 369–83 passim.
22.See, for example, Harry Rositzke, The KGB. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1981; or more recently, Phillip Knightly, The Master Spy; The Story of Kim Philby. New York: Knopf, 1989.
23.The Hungarian secret service, for example, is said to have succeeded in intercepting and decrypting Dulles’s radio transmissions; see Wilhelm Hoettl, The Secret Front. New York: Praeger, 1954, p. 285.
24.Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, Correspondence, op. cit., pp. 198–214.
25.Ingeborg Fleischhauer, Die Chance des Sonderfriedens; Deutschsowietische Geheimgesprache 1941–1945. Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1986.
26.A. Poltorak, Retribution; Notes of an Eye-witness of the Nuremberg Trial. Moscow: Novosti, 1976.
27.UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., p. 123. My special thanks to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum for permitting me access to their microfilm collection of records from the Extraordinary State Commission.
28.Matthews to Secretary of State, March 5, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/813, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC; Hackworth to Welles, March 16, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/817, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
29.U.S. hears of German charges: Harrison to Secretary of State, April 15, 1943, 740.0011 EW 1939/29008, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. For data on Katyn from the point of view of German propaganda and war crimes investigators, see de Zayas, op. cit., pp. 228–39, or Felix Lutzkendorf, “Das Waldchen von Katyn,” Das Reich, May 2, 1943.
30.J. K. Zawodny, Death in the Forest. The Story of the Katyn Forest Massacre. Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 1962, pp. 3–28. For later Soviet reversal discussed in footnote, see “Soviets Admit Blame in Massacre of Polish Officers in World War II,” New York Times, April 13, 1990.
31.Zawodny, ibid.
32.Ibid., pp. 31–41. For accounts of the complexities of Soviet-Polish relations during this period, see also Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945. New York: Avon, 1964, pp. 582–612, and Gabriel Kolko, op. cit., pp. 99–122.
33.Zawodny, op. cit., pp. 34–41.
34.UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., pp. 112, 158–59; Durbrow to Hackworth, December 14, 1943 (with attachment), 740.00116 EW 1939/1187, box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
35.Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1986; U.S., Commission on the Ukrainian Famine, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine 1932–1933. Washington, DC: USGPO, 1988.
36.FDR to Secretary of State, April 9, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/994, box 2919, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. Pell’s letter to FDR concerning the lunch is attached to this note.
37.FDR to MacIntyre, December 14, 1942, and Welles to MacIntyre, December 17, 1942, FDR papers, Pell file, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, NY; Kenneth Schwartz, “The United States and the War Crimes Commission: Stalemate and Checkmate,” April 1977, p. 16, now in the Herbert Pell papers, collection of Senator Claiborne Pell.
38.Hackworth to Secretary of State, March 16, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/817, box 2918, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC; Hull to FDR, May 21 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/949A, box 2919, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
39.Dunn’s action: FDR to Secretary of State (with attachments), April 9, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/994, op. cit. Pell’s appointment: FDR to Pell, June 14, 1943 740.00116 EW 1939/1275, box 2922, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
Chapter Nine
Silk Stocking Rebel
1.For background on Herbert Pell, see Leonard Baker, Brahmin in Revolt. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1972; Michael Blayney, Democracy’s Aristocrat: The Life of Herbert Pell. Lanham, NY: University Press, 1986; Herbert Pell, Oral History (1951), Columbia University, NY; Herbert Pell, Commission and Omission (1945), unpublished manuscript, Pell papers, collection of Senator Claiborne Pell. I am grateful to Senator Pell for permitting me access to these papers and sharing with me his recollections of his father.
2.Arthur M. Schlesinger, jr. Crisis of the Old Order, 1919–1933. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957, p. 397; and E. Digby Baltzell, The Protestant Establishment: Aristocracy and Class in America. New York: Random House, 1964, p. 241. For similar sentiments, see Herbert Pell, “The Bankers Have Failed” Plain Talk magazine, December 1932, or Herbert Pell, “Muzzling the Ox,” Yankee magazine, both republished in pamphlet form in Pell papers.
3.Herbert Pell, Oral History, op. cit.; Baker, op. cit., pp. 176–237.
4.“‘Ah, Sweet Intrigue!’ Or, Who Axed State’s Prewar Soviet Division?” Foreign Intelligence Literary Scene, October 1984, p. 1; see also Frederic Propas, “Creating a Hard Line Towards Russia: The Training of State Department Soviet Experts 1927–1937,” Diplomatic History, Summer 1984, pp. 209–26; Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977, pp. 17–41.
5.Herbert Pell, Oral History, op. cit., p. 587.
6.On Green Hackworth: for a biographical summary, see National Cyclopedia of American Biography, vol. 57, p. 110, Current Biography 195
8, pp. 181–82, and the introductory notes to Green Hackworth, Digest of International Law, vol. 1, Deparatment of State publication no. 1506, 1940; Washington DC: USGPO; reprint, New York: Garland Publishing, 1973.
7.Hackworth, ibid.
8.Ibid., vol. 6.
9.Pell, Oral History, op. cit., pp. 584–85. Hackworth suggested Preuss, a professor in international law, to Pell sometime in June 1943. Pell formally requested Preuss later that month, and evidently only later concluded that Preuss was cooperating with Hackworth in opposition to Pell; see Hackworth to Welles, June 29, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1003, box 2919, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
10.Herbert Pell, Commission and Omission, op. cit., pp. 2–3. For State Department correspondence on this issue: Pell to Welles, July 3, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1083; Shaw to Pell, July 10, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1004; Winant to Secretary of State, July 13, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/991; Hull to U.S. Embassy London, July 17, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/991; Hull to U.S. Embassy London, August 5, 1943 (draft), 740.00116 EW 1939/991; Kelchner to Shaw, August 12, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1036; all in RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
11.Gerhard Hirschfeld, “Chronology of Destruction,” in Gerhard Hirschfeld, The Policies of Genocide. Jews and Soviet Prisoners of War in Nazi Germany. London: Allen & Unwin/German Histsorical Institute, 1986, pp. 153–55.
12.Schwartz, op. cit., p. 18.
13.FDR to Secretary of State, September 2, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1084, box 2920, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
14.Kelchner to Hackworth, September 10, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1079, box 2920, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
15.Schwartz, op. cit., p. 20.
16.Ibid. For details concerning the personnel and administrative structure of the UNWCC established at this time, see UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., pp. 113–27.
17.UNWCC and the Laws of War, p. 113.
18.Memorandum of conversation, November 9, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1178, box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
19.Pell to Secretary of State, November 11, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1218, box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
20.Hans Frank diary, Nuremberg document no. PS-2233, National Archives, Washington, DC.
21.Wilson (OSS) to Berle, February 4, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/794, box 2917, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
22.David Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews. New York: Pantheon, 1984, p. 44.
23.For State’s vetoes of OSS psychological warfare plan against Nazi atrocities, see Hackworth to Berle, February 10, 1943, and Berle to Wilson (OSS), February 11, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/794, box 2917, and Stettinius to FDR, November 4, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1143, with attachments, box 2920; both in RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
24.Herbert Feis, Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1957, pp. 206–34.
25.Churchill to Eden, October 21, 1943, British Foreign Office 371 34376/C12918, Public Record Office, London.
26.Quoted in Martin Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981, p. 159.
27.Anthony Eden, Prime Minister’s papers, October 9, 1943, PREM 4 100/9, Public Record Office, London.
28.UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., pp. 107–108.
29.Feis, op. cit.
30.Ibid., pp. 220–21.
31.Harriman to Secretary of State, November 16, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1157, box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
32.Tom Bower, Blind Eye to Murder. London: Granada, 1983, p. 70.
33.Algiers to Secretary of State, November 23, 1943, 740.00116EW 1939/1169, and Secretary of State (vis. Bernard Guffler) to Amrep. Algiers, November 26, 1943, 740.00116EW 1939/1159, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
34.Ibid.
35.Randolph Paul, Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of This Government in the Murder of the Jews, Jan. 13, 1944, Morgenthau Diaries, vol. 693, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, NY, pp. 212–29.
36.Morgenthau Diaries, op. cit., vol. 688–II, pp. 156–57; Wyman, op. cit., p. 185.
37.Wyman, op. cit., pp. 179–80ff.
38.Saul Friedman, No Haven for the Oppressed. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1973, pp. 115–16.
39.Wyman, op. cit., p. 182.
Chapter Ten
“The Present Ruling Class of Germany”
1.Author’s interview with Bernard Bernstein, February 24, 1989.
2.Ibid.
3.Charles Burdick, An American Island in Hitler’s Reich. The Bad Nauheim Internment, Menlo Park, CA: Markgraf, 1987.
4.George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925–1950. Boston: Little, Brown, 1967, pp. 175, 179.
5.Loc. cit.
6.Ibid., pp. 175–77.
7.On Durbrow, Hickerson, and Reams: David Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews. New York: Pantheon, 1984, p. 81; on Durbrow and Hickerson: Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977, pp. 28–29, 301; and Weil, A Pretty Good Club. New York: Norton, 1978, op. cit., pp. 53–54, 84, 120 and passim.
8.Algiers to Secretary of State, November 23, 1943, 740.00116EW 1939/1169, and Secretary of State (vis. Bernard Guffler) to Amrep. Algiers, November 26, 1943, 740.00116EW 1939/1159; both in RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. See also P. H. Gore-Booth to Hackworth and attached documents, in Committee on Europe, box 138, SWNCC/SANACC Committee files, RG 353, National Archives, Washington, DC (rejection of prosecutions for crimes against humanity, or for offenses against Jews inside Axis countries); Le 740.00116EW/4-1945 in file: “Surrender,” box 1, lot 61 D 33, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC (refusal to turn over war crimes suspects); “For Springer”: November 21, 1946, 740.00116EW/11-1446 and attachment (Aryanizations in Belgium not a war crime).
9.See Kennan’s comments, for example, in Memoirs, op. cit., pp. 176–77.
10.Ibid., p. 118.
11.For example, ibid, p. 123.
12.US Army Counter Intelligence Corps dossier XE000318-I6A009 Henschel, Oscar R., available via Freedom of Information Act from U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command, Ft. Meade, MD.
13.Oswald Pohl affidavit, October 7, 1946, Nuremberg document no. NI-1064, National Archives microfilm T-301, roll 10, frame 001112; Kranefuss to Himmler, April 21, 1943, at Berlin Document Center; copy in author’s collection.
14.Ibid.
15.Eichholtz, Kriegswirtschaft, op. cit., p. 221.
16.Ludolf Herbst, Der Totale Krieg und die Ordnung der Wirtschaft. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlag-Amstalt, 1982, pp. 383–409; Wolfgang Schumann, “Politische Aspekte der Nachkriegsplanungen des faschistischen deutschen Imperialismus in der Endphase des zweiten Weltkrieges,” Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 1979 no. 1, pp. 395–408; Wolfgang Schumann, “Nachkriegsplanungen der Reichsgruppe Industrie im Herbst 1944, Ein Dokumentation,” Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Berlin: Akademie, 1972, pp. 259–96.
17.Lindemann, in a postwar interrogation by U.S. intelligence, discusses a factional split in the Himmlerkreis over these issues, apparently leading to the establishment of the industry planning groups discussed in the previous source note. See “Preliminary Interrogation Report: Lindemann, Karl,” September 12, 1945, in Lindemann INSCOM dossier.
18.Tabitha Petran, “Key Names in Nazi Peace Plot and British Banking Contacts,” New York Post, February 3, 1944; Heinz Pol, “IG Farben’s Peace Offer,” The Protestant, June–July 1943, p. 41; Jonathan Marshall, Bankers and the Search for a Separate Peace During World War II, unpublished monograph, 1981; Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan and Cromwell. New York: William Morrow, 1988, p. 144.
Schumann reports that German industrialists placed special emphasis on contacts through the Bank for International Settlements; see Wolfgang Schumann, “Die Wirtschaftspolitische Überlebensstrategie des deutschen Imperialismus in der Endphase des zweiten Weltkrieges,” Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, no. 6, 1979, p. 508
.
19.Richard Harris Smith, OSS. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California Press, 1972, pp. 204–41; Anthony Cave Brown (ed.), The Secret War Report of the OSS. New York: Berkeley, 1976, pp. 250–55.
20.Ingeborg Fleischhauer, Die Chance des Sonderfriedens; Deutschsowietische Geheimgesprache 1941–1945. Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1986.
21.On terms of the “peace” offers, see Heinz Hohne, The Order of the Death’s Head. New York: Ballantine, 1969, pp. 591–99 (in original German as Der Orden unter dem Totenkopf. Hamburg: Verlag der Spiegel, 1966). See also Bernd Martin, “Deutsche Oppositions- und Widerstandkreise und die Frage eines separaten Friedensschlusses im zweiten Weltkrieg,” in Klaus-Jürgen Müller (Hrsg.), Der deutsche Widerstand 1933–1945. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schoningh, 1986.
22.Gabriel Kolko, The Politics of War. New York: Random House, 1968, p. 110.
23.Turner Catledge, “Our Policy Stated in Nazi-Soviet War,” New York Times, June 24, 1941.
24.Raymond G. O’Connor, Diplomacy for Victory; FDR and Unconditional Surrender. New York: Norton, 1971, pp. 33–35, 41–43, 50–54; Feis, Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin, op. cit., pp. 217–34.
25.Albert Speer, Infiltration. New York: Macmillan, 1981, pp. 117–32.
26.Weinmann, Das nationalsozialistische Lagersystem, presents data in tabular form concerning the liquidation of hundreds of business projects in the East in which the surviving prisoners were transferred to extermination camps.
Chapter Eleven
The Trials Begin
1.On Krasnodar trials and filming of executions: Standley to Secretary of State, September 9, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1086, box 2920, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. On gas vans: Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews. New York: Harper, 1981. p. 219; Ohlendorf affidavit, November 5, 1945, Nuremberg document no. PS-2620; Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945. New York: Avon, 1964 pp. 641, 669–70.
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