22.Ibid., pp. 90–91.
23.Loc. cit.
24.Loc. cit.
25.For a good summary of early Yugoslav requests, see Carmel Offie to Secretary of State, “Alleged Yugoslav War Criminals” (with attachments), August 28, 1945, 740.00116EW/8-2845, box 3602, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
26.For a partisan but nonetheless well-documented discussion, see Vladimir Dedijer, Jasenovac, der jugoslawische Auschwitz und der Vatikan. Freiburg: Ahriman-Verlag, 1988.
27.Vincent LaVista, “Illegal Immigration Movements in and Through Italy,” with appendixes (Top Secret), FW 800.0128/5-1547, National Archives, Washington, DC.
28.For incident discussed in footnote, see Serbian Benevolent Society to Secretary of State, September 1, 1945, with attached routing slip to Military Intelligence Division, Office of Naval Intelligence, etc., 740.0016EW/9-145, box 3602, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
29.Supreme Commander Allied Forces, HQ Caserta, Italy, to War Department, July 27, 1945, in CCAC 193/4, Committee on Europe, SWNCC/SANACC Committee files, box 138, RG 353, National Archives, Washington, DC.
30.Combined Civil Affairs Committee, “Policy as to Disposition of War Criminals, Renegades, and Quislings,” with enclosures, August 19, 1945, in CCAC 193/5, Committee on Europe, SWNCC/SANACC Committee files, box 138, RG 353, National Archives, Washington, DC.
31.Cabot to Secretary of State, June 12, 1947 (Top Secret), 740.00116EW/6-1147, box 3623, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. For a second, similar Cabot protest, see 740.0016 EW/6-2547 in the same box.
32.State action: cover note attached to June 12 protest, ibid. Formal protests on related disputes to the U.S. State Department from other governments include: 740.00116EW/12-547 (Netherlands), 740.00116EW/2147 (Poland), 740.00116EW/11-1447 (Czechoslovakia), 740.00116EW/1-848 (Poland), 740.00116EW/10-3147 (France), 740.00116EW/12-1947 (Netherlands), 740.00116EW/6-2449 (France), 740.00116EW/6-16-49 (Belgium), all at RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
33.“Yugoslav War Crimes Extradition Request: Dr. Nikola Rusinovic,” September 9, 1947 (Secret), 740.00116EW/9-947, box 3624, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. For a detailed and well-documented discussion of the problem of escaped Yugoslav war criminals, including their postwar role, see Mark Aarons, Sanctuary. Nazi Fugitives in Australia. Port Melbourne: Mandarin-Australia, 1989.
34.Nicholas Bethell, The Last Secret. New York: Basic Books, 1974.
35.Ibid., p. 4.
36.Ibid., p. 9.
37.Ibid., p. 20.
38.Ibid., pp. 23–27.
39.Loc. cit.
40.Bethell, op. cit., pp. 31–34.
41.Jackson to Byrnes, July 4, 1945, 740.00116EW/7-445 (Confidential), box 3600, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
42.Loc. cit.
Chapter Fifteen
White Lists
1.Bern to OSS headquarters and division chiefs, November 3, 1944 (Secret), Bern, November 1, 1944–January 31, 1945, Wash. Sect. R&C 78, folder 19, box 278, entry 134, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC.
2.Bradley F. Smith, The Shadow Warriors: The OSS and the Origins of the CIA. New York: Basic Books, 1983, pp. 222–26, provides what is perhaps the most balanced and thorough evaluation of Dulles’s effectiveness as a source of intelligence. For internal OSS criticisms of Dulles cited in footnote, see OSS HQ to Bern, January 22, 1944 (Secret), Washington Register R&C 56, box 165; Ustravic (London) to OSS HQ and to Bern, May 26, 1944 (Secret), Bern-London May-October 1944 in B. L. London, box 157: both in entry 134, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC. For OSS War Diary comment: European Theater of Operations, Secret Intelligence War Diary, Reports Division, p. 314, vol. 8, book 11, entry 91, box 14, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC. For Dulles’s version, see Allen Dulles, Germany’s Underground. New York: Macmillan, 1947, and The Secret Surrender. New York: Harper, 1966. For a well-informed eyewitness’s reply to Dulles’s claim that he was effective in bringing about a German surrender, see Max Corvo, The OSS in Italy 1942–1945. New York: Praeger, 1990, pp. 242–72 passim.
3.Probably the best overall source on the official aspects of the Bank for International Settlements’ activities during this period is the Bank for International Settlements Annual Reports, 1938–1943. Basle: BIS.
4.Eleanor Lansing Dulles, The Bank for International Settlements at Work. New York: Macmillan, 1932.
5.For a careful dissection of the Dulles business ties to European companies, see Ronald Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power. New York: Free Press, 1982, pp. 123–32.
6.On McKittrick: see, for example, Robert Joyce to Lewis Gable (OSS commander for France, 1945), August 20, 1945, entry 148, folder 2046, box 119, “500 fides,” RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC.
7.Confidential source; author’s collection.
8.See BIS, Annual Reports, 1938–1939, op. cit., Annex 1, “Central Banks or Other Banking Institutions Possessing Right of Representation and of Voting.”
9.“World Bank [sic] to Release Gold Looted by Germany,” New York Times, May 15, 1948; “The Case of Thomas McKittrick,” Prevent World War III, September-October 1948.
10.United Nations War Crimes Commission case no. 7347 (Polish case No. 1366), Poland v. Dr. Paersch, Reichsbank Berlin, et al. A copy of this case is available at the UNWCC archives in New York, or at Springer to Secretary of State, February 27, 1948, 740.00116/EW 2-2748, box 3628, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
11.Ibid. On currency clearing, see Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment, 1944, pp. 58–63, 127–28; Thomas Reveille (Rifat Tirana), The Spoil of Europe. New York: Norton, 1941, pp. 89–101, 121–29, 138–47; Henry Bloch and Bert Hoselitz, Economics of Military Occupation. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1944, pp. 5–27.
12.Reveille, loc. cit.; Bloch and Hoselitz, loc. cit.
13.UNWCC case no. 7347, Poland v. Dr. Paersch, Reichsbank Berlin, et al, op. cit. For estimate of German war budget: Klein, op. cit., p. 256, table 65.
14.For British estimate of scope of looting: “Big Sums Exacted of Occupied Lands,” New York Times, October 29, 1943. The estimate is based on wartime exchange rates.
15.The indictment’s extended discussion of the complex clearing process in Poland has been simplified slightly here for clarity’s sake. German Finance Minister Funk eventually admitted his role in the expropriation via the clearing system, then retracted this confession. See “Testimony of Walter Funk,” October 22, 1945, pp. 19–22, Nuremberg doc. no. PS-3545, RG 238, National Archives, Washington, DC. “World Bank [sic] to Release Gold Looted by Germany,” New York Times, May 15, 1948.
16.Allen Dulles to Joseph M. Dodge, September 20, 1945, file: “Johannes Tuengeler,” OMGUS-FINAD, box 237, RG 260, National Archives, Suitland, MD.
Also on Dulles’s list was Robert Pferdemenges, a Cologne banker with a reputation for hostility to Nazism who ended up as German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer’s most powerful advisor and confidant. Dulles said that Pferdemenges had “made such compromises during the Nazi regime as were necessary to maintain his business” and ran an Aryanized banking house, but he had helped Jewish friends at the time he took over their businesses. The most important of these appears to have been Eric Warburg, who eventually reentered a banking partnership with Pferdemenges after the war.
17.“Victor Over Inflation; Dr. Karl Blessing,” New York Times, January 3, 1970.
18.Affidavit of Oswald Pohl, October 7, 1946, Nuremberg document no. NI-1064, National Archives microfilm T-301, roll 10, frames 001112-001114.
19.Kranefuss to Himmler, April 21, 1943, Berlin Document Center; copy in author’s collection.
20.Karl Blessing, Fragebogen, August 31, 1946, in U.S. Army CIC dossier no. XE 170459 89291-3410, “Blessing, Karl,” obtained via Freedom of Information Act, U.S. Army INSCOM, Ft. Meade, MD. Blessing’s NSDAP record is in the Berlin Document Center, no. 5917306.
21.Ibid.
22.Ibid.
24.Dallin, op. cit., p. 243.
25.International Tracing Service, Verzeichnis der Haftstatten unter der Reichsführer-SS 1933–1945. Geneve: Red Cross International Committee, 1979; copy in author’s collection. For an excellent and easier-to-access source, see Martin Weinmann with Anne Kaiser and Ursula Krause-Schmitt (eds.), Das nationalsozialistische Lagersystem. Frankfurt: Ausgabe bei Zweitausendeins, 1990.
26.“Re: Solution of the Jewish Question in Galicia,” June 30, 1943, with enclosed report, translated as International Military Tribunal prosecution document no. L-18, U.S. Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality, Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression (red series), vol. 7. Washington: USGPO, 1946, pp. 755–70. See particularly Hoffman correspondence concerning terms for use of Jews in forced labor, October 23, 1942 (Secret), pp. 761–63; quote in text is from p. 762.
27.Bohdan Wytwycky, The Other Holocaust. Washington, DC: Novak Report, 1980, p. 49. The Nazis eventually executed many of the laborers who survived the camps. According to International Red Cross reports, for example, of about 800 prisoners surviving at Kontinentale Öl’s Borisow camp when it closed in March, 1943, “about 80 men and 20 women were evacuated to Smolensk, the rest were shot.” The Smolensk center was also a forced labor camp. See International Tracing Service, Catalogue of Camps and Prisons in Germany and German-Occupied Territories, 1939–1945, (first issue). Arolsen: International Tracing Service Records Branch, 1949; reproduced in Das nationalsozialistische Lagersystem, op. cit., p. 699.
28.Nuremberg doc. no. NG-2586, op. cit.
29.Spezial-Archiv der Deutschen Wirtschaft, Wer Leitet? Die Männer der Wirtschaft und der einschlagigen Verwaltung 1941–1942. Berlin: Hoppenstedt, 1942, p. 77; see also Karl Blessing, Fragebogen, August 31, 1946, in U.S. Army CIC dossier no. XE 170459 89291–3410, “Blessing, Karl,” obtained via Freedom of Information Act, U.S. Army INSCOM, Ft. Meade, MD.
30.See Kontinentale Öl’s 1943 correspondence with the SS’s Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe GmbH on this project, National Archives microfilm T-976, roll 6, frames 001080–001110.
31.“Karl Blessing Is Dead at 71; Led West German Central Bank,” New York Times, April 27, 1971, and “Who’s Who in Foreign Business,” Fortune, February 1958.
32.Ibid.
33.Ibid. For data in footnote, see Blessing, Fragebogen, op. cit. Not all of Dulles’s interventions on behalf of favored Germans were so successful, particularly when outsiders raised questions about his judgment. Several of his key agents fell afoul of postwar denazification authorities. See Laqueur and Breitman, Breaking the Silence, op. cit., pp. 231–39.
34.John Alan Appleman, Military Tribunals and International Crimes. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1971, pp. 177–83.
35.Bradley F. Smith, Reaching Judgement at Nuremberg. New York: New American Library, 1977, pp. 266–84.
36.Murphy to Secretary of State, December 10, 1945, Harrison to Secretary of State, December 13, 1945; both at file “War Crimes—International Military Tribunal, folder a#1,” lot 61 D 33, box 1, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
37.On Gisevius’s role, see Smith, op. cit., p. 271.
38.On Gafencu’s role; see Davidson, Trial of the Germans, op. cit., p. 34.
39.Smith, op. cit., pp. 270–72. Schacht’s attorney told the media that U.S. Consul Sam Woods (who also played a role in the later Horthy affair) offered Schacht a deal in 1939 under which the banker would resign from Hitler’s government “with a promise he would be restored to power as post-war German official”; see Acheson to U.S. Legation, Bern, May 7, 1946 (Top Secret), 740.00116 EW/5-746, box 3615, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
40.See, for example, Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1986.
41.For documentary background concerning Horthy’s role in aggression and war crimes, see Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, op. cit., pp. 361–67.
42.Hodgson (UNWCC) to Secretary of State transmitting copy of the Yugoslav case against Horthy, January 15, 1946, in file “War Crimes—Horthy,” lot 61 D 33, box 4, RG 59, National Archives; and Schoenfeld to Secretary of State, September 10, 1945 (Secret), in file: “War Crimes—Horthy,” lot 61 D 33, box 4, RG 59, National Archives. For U.S. agreement concerning return of criminals, see UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., pp. 107–108.
43.Unsigned U.S. Embassy message to Secretary of State, November 29, 1945 (Secret), in file: “War Crimes—Horthy,” lot 61 D 33, box 4, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
Chapter Sixteen
Prisoner Transfers
1.Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews. New York: Bantam, 1975, pp. 512–17. For the events surrounding Horthy’s belated order halting deportations to Auschwitz after some 430,000 Jews had been shipped to the camp, see Martin Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981, pp. 262–66. For an unusually detailed, Ceauşescu-era indictment of Horthy drawn from what would otherwise be unavailable Romanian documentation, see Mihai Fatu and Mircea Musat (eds.), Horthyist-Fascist Terror in Northwestern Romania 1940–1944, Bucharest: Meridiane, 1986.
2.Murphy to Secretary of State, with attached reply, September 1, 1945 (Secret), 740 00116 EW/9-145, box 3602, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
3.AE Donovan (Legal Advisor’s staff) to U.S. Embassy, Moscow, October 31, 1945, 740.00116EW/10-3145, box 3606, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
4.Murphy to Secretary of State, with attached reply, September 1, 1945 (Secret), 740.00116 EW/9-145, box 3602, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. Note role of Army intelligence (G-2) in this exchange. Schoenfeld to Secretary of State, September 10, 1945 (Secret), in file “War Crimes—Horthy,” lot 61 D 33, box 4, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
5.Schoenfeld to Secretary of State, September 10, 1945; ibid.
6.Murphy to Secretary of State, January 8, 1946 (Secret), 740.00116EW/1-845, box 3610, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
7.U.S. Political Advisor for Germany, “Surrender of Nicholas Horthy to Yugoslavia for Trial as a War Criminal” (Secret), January 22, 1947, 740.00116EW/1-2247, box 3621, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
8.Fite to Fahy, October 11, 1946, in file: “War Crimes—Horthy,” box 4, D 33 lot 61, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
9.Medical report attached to U.S. Political Advisor for Germany, “Surrender of Nicholas Horthy to Yugoslavia for Trial as a War Criminal” (Secret), January 22, 1947, op. cit.
10.Hodgson to Secretary of State, March 6, 1946 (report on February UNWCC activities), 740.00116EW/3-646, box 3613, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. For material in footnote, see, for example, Fite to Fahy, October 11, 1946, in file: “War Crimes—Horthy,” box 4, lot 61 D 33, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
11.U.S. Political Advisor for Germany, “Surrender of Nicholas
Horthy to Yugoslavia for Trial as a War Criminal” (Secret), January 22, 1947, op. cit.
12.Embassy of the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia to U.S. Secretary of State, March 3, 1948, with State’s reply of March 15, 740. 00116EW/3-348, box 3628, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
13.Ibid.
14.OSS reports quoted in Bradley F. Smith and Elena Agarossi, Operation Sunrise. New York: Basic Books, 1979, p. 188.
15.Murphy to Secretary of State, 740.00116EW/8-1147 (Top Secret, No Distribution), August 11, 1947, obtained via Freedom of Information Act, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
16.For a summary, see Simon Wiesenthal Center (Los Angeles), SS Col. Walter Rauff. The Church Connection, 1943–1947—the first to plausibly link Dulles and Bicchierai to Rauff’s escape. Despite the overall good quality of this study, it erroneously concluded that Dulles had been Rauff’s U.S. interrogator on the basis of the initials “A.J.D.” appearing in an Army Counter Intelligence Corps report. Dulles’s initials are A.W.D. See particularly “Interrogation Report on SS Standartenfuehrer Rauff, Walter,” May 15, 1945 (Confidential), in U.S. Army Counter Intelligence Corps file no. D-216719, “Rauff, Walter,” obtained via Freedom of Information Act from U.S. Army INSCOM, Ft. Meade, MD.
17.Smith and Agarossi, op. cit., p. 189.
18.Loc. cit.
19.For correspondence concerning Jackson’s resignation and Taylor’s appointment, see SWNCC 237: Further Proceedings Against Axis War Criminals, December 1945-January 1947, State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee Records, available via microfilm from Scholarly Resources.
20.John Alan Appleman, Military Tribunals and International Crimes. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1971.
21.Ibid., data summarized.
22.Robert Joyce (Central Intelligence Group), to Walter Dowling, “Subject: Former SS Colonel Dollmann” (Top Secret), December 1, 1946,obtained in sanitized form via Freedom of Information Act, 740.00116EW/12-146, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
23.Rauff version: “Interrogation Report on SS Standartenfuehrer Rauff, Walter” May 15, 1945, op. cit. Dulles’s version: Allen Dulles, The Secret Surrender. New York: Harper, 1966. pp. 66, 83, 102, 107, 158, 188, 192–93.
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