Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease 203
CRISPR (genetic-engineering technique) 181–2, 183, 184
Crittenden, Alyssa 144–6
Cro-Magnons 285–6
crop-rotation 161
cucumbers 211
Cueva Tres Ventanas, Peru, archaeological site 152
dairy farming 95–7, 103, 107, 310–311
dairy products see cheese-making; milk production and consumption
Darwin, Charles 2–4, 36, 52, 168–9, 235–6, 276, 282, 303–4, 321, 330
on cattle 100
on chickens 188
on dogs 32
on maize 133–5
on potatoes 150–51
see also natural selection, theory of
Darwin, Sir Francis 52
date palms 272
Daytona Beach, Florida 84
deforestation 325–6
Denisovan hominins 290, 298, 299
dental analysis and research 93–5, 143–4, 147, 235–6, 245–6
Diamond, Jared 95, 302
Dias, Bartolomeu 113, 115
digging sticks 141, 143, 146, 147, 150
dingoes 17, 39, 41
Dinohippus (extinct early equid) 232
dinosaurs 117, 188, 229
Dioscorides, Pedanius 119
Dja’de-el-Mughara, Iraq, archaeological site 99
DNA research 5, 50–51
of apples 277–80, 329
of cattle 100, 101, 105, 109–110
of chickens 176, 179–80, 188–9, 190–91, 192–3, 194–5, 196
of dogs 13–14, 17, 18–24, 35, 38–9
of horses 232, 235, 251–3, 256–9
of humans 191, 286, 287–91, 297–9
of maize 126–30
of potatoes 156, 157–8
of rice 211–12, 219–21
of wheat and barley 65, 66–9
see also genetic modification
dogs (Canis familiaris) 8–46, 149, 240, 260
dating and locations of early domestication 12–24, 303, 308, 331
genetic make-up 12, 13–14, 17, 18–24, 35, 38–9
selective breeding, hybridisation and mutational variations 28–46, 303, 312, 321
dog breeds 17, 32, 38–46
basenji 17, 41
bassett hound 42
Border terrier 30
Chinese crested dog 42
Chinese Shar-Pei 19
cocker spaniel 42
corgi 42
Czech wolfdog 43–4
dachshund 42
Dalmatian 42
dingo 17, 39, 41
Finnish spitz 19
German shepherd 43, 44
Greenland sledge dog 19, 39
Irish wolfhound 41–2
Labrador 42
Mexican hairless dog 42
New Guinea singing dog 40
pug 41
Saarloos 22, 43–4
saluki 39
Siberian husky 19, 39, 44
springer spaniel 30
Dolni Vestonice, Czech Republic, archaeological site 275
‘domestication syndrome’ in humans 312–17
donkeys 232, 252, 256
Drake, Sir Francis 160
Drummond, William Henry, ‘Strathcona’s Horse’ 227
Dryas octopetala (mountain-avens) 71–2
ducks 117, 308
Dzungaria, China 254, 264
Easter Islanders 94, 191
Eden, Garden of, forbidden fruit 270
egg production 170, 171, 195–6
Egyptians, Ancient 76, 196, 222
elk and moose 78, 240
Eohippus (extinct early equid) 231
EPAS1 (gene) 297–8
Eratosthenes 114
Eriksson, Leif 121
Etruscans 105
European grey wolves see wolves
Evershed, Richard 96, 98, 310
evolutionary biology, developments in 2–4, 32–4, 51–2, 296–8
exploration, maritime 113–18, 122–6, 128–9, 158–9, 235
Fabre, Jean-Henri Casimir 47
Falconer, Hugh 282, 283
famines 162, 165–6, 329
fasting 195
feasting rituals 74, 75–6, 128, 224
Feldhofer Grotte, Germany, Neanderthal remains 281–3, 284
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain 113, 116, 123, 124, 126
Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe 114
Fertile Crescent 55–6, 60, 64, 66–9, 76, 77, 154, 215, 223, 301, 302
fertilisers, synthetic 201–2, 319
figs 55, 271, 272
First World War 309
fishing and fish consumption 80, 95, 125, 213
flax 55, 301
flint tools see stone tools
food security 108, 163, 319–31
Forbes Quarry, Gibraltar, Neanderthal skull 281–3, 284
forbidden fruit (mythology) 270
Formby Beach, Merseyside 84–8
Forsline, Philip 266, 280
foxes, selective breeding experiment 28–30, 33–5, 312, 313–14, 321
foxtail millet 211, 213, 301
Fraley, Robert 204
François I, King of France 128
Frederick the Great, King of Prussia 162
freezing (preservation method) 154
French fries, invention of 159
Friends of the Earth (environmental organisation) 184, 322
Fuchs, Leonhart 119, 120, 128
Game of Thrones (television series) 43
Garrod, Dorothy 56
Gates Foundation 186, 324
gauchos (horsemen) 228–30
genetic drift 296
genetic modification (GM) 7, 168–9, 174–87, 199–210, 320–24, 329
of aubergines 186, 209, 210, 323
of chickens 174–5, 177–84, 186–7, 196, 324
of cotton 201, 207, 208, 209
of maize 201, 206, 207, 208, 209
of potatoes 168, 169
of rice 176, 185–6, 199–201, 206–7, 209, 210, 225, 323
of soybeans 184, 202, 203–4, 206, 208, 209, 210, 324
Genghis Khan 112
Gerard, John 121, 122, 126, 160
Gibraltar, Forbes Quarry Neanderthal skull 281–3, 284
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 122–3, 126
Gilgal, Jordan Valley 56
global warming see climate change
Glover, Dominic 201
glyphosphate (herbicide) 202
GM see genetic modification
goats:
domestication 95, 96, 97, 99–100, 195, 220, 303, 327
milk production 97, 310
Göbekli Tepe, Turkey, archaeological site 72–6, 77
gomphotheres (extinct animals) 141
gorillas 143
gourds 213
Goyet Cave, Belgium, archaeological site 14
dog skull 14–15, 16, 17–18, 20
grafting (propagation technique) 272–4, 320–21
Graham, George Augustus 41
grapevines 55, 272, 273, 274, 278
grazing, livestock 326–7
Great American Seaway, closure of 232
Greeks, Ancient 114, 119, 192, 194, 250, 270–71, 274
Green Revolution 201, 319, 328
Greenhill, Zoe 26
Greenlandic Vikings 95
Greenpeace (environmental organisation) 200, 203–5
grey junglefowl 189, 330
grey wolves, European see wolves
grinding stones and mortars 56, 57, 214, 218, 301, 302
groundnuts 176
Gummer, John, Baron Deben 203
Hadrian’s Wall 309
Hadza people 144–7, 304
Hallan Çemi, Turkey 75
Haughey’s Fort, Ireland, archaeological site 274
Hawks, John 291
Heaney, Seamus, ‘Digging’ 139
Henry VII, King 124, 125
Henry VIII, King 126
herbals 119–21, 127–8, 160
herbicides 202<
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herbicide-resistance 201, 202, 204, 206
Hercynian Forest, Germany 90–91
Herodotus 105
Herring, Ronald 210
high-altitude adaptation (in humans) 297–8
high-fructose corn syrup 307
Hipparion (extinct early equid) 232
Hippidion (extinct horse genus) 232, 233, 234
Hippocratic Treatise 274
HLA genes 299
Homer, Odyssey 271
Homo antecessor 287
Homo erectus 287
Homo heidelbergensis 237, 287
Homo neanderthalensis see Neanderthals
Homo sapiens see humans
honey 145, 147
honeybees 3, 145, 303, 320
honeycreeper (bird) 186–7
horses (Equus caballus) 227–61, 269–70
classification and history of wild horses 231–41
domestication 241–50, 254–61, 268, 303, 308–9
genetic make-up 251–3, 255–60
hybridisation and breeding 251–3, 254, 258–60, 330
see also horse-riding; mare’s milk
horse species and breeds 250–55
Appaloosa 259
Caballo de Carro 258
Camargue 255
Criollo 258
Equus ferus (Tarpan) 240, 253, 255
Exmoor pony 255
Knabstrupper 259
Lusitano 248
Marismeño 258
Noriker 259
Paso Fino 258
Pottok pony 255
Przewalski’s horse 240, 252–5, 264
Yakutian 259
horse-riding 227–30, 240–43, 244, 245–8, 249, 292, 307
Hudson, Henry 126
Huguenots 161
Huldschinsky, Kurt 294
humans (Homo sapiens):
genetic make-up 286, 287–91, 297–9
interbreeding with other Homo species 283–4, 287–8, 289–91, 298–300
migrations of early humans 237, 286, 289, 291–3, 302, 305
origins and evolution 284–300, 305–317
population growth 6–7, 161, 305, 306, 313, 317, 318–19
human expressions, animals’ ability to interpret 260–61
Humboldt, Alexander 150
Huxi, China, archaeological site 214
Huxley, Sir Julian, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 32–3
Huxley, Thomas Henry 33
Huzuq Musa, Jordan Valley, archaeological site 57
hyacinth beans 224
hyenas 31, 283
Ice Age (last glacial maximum) 13, 37, 142–3, 215, 233, 287
ending of 12, 37, 71, 72, 76, 79, 215, 233, 238, 239–40, 268, 301
Ice Age humans 12, 14, 71, 217, 268, 291, 292, 313
and cattle 83–4
and dogs 12, 13, 14, 17–18, 25, 31, 37, 308
and horses 233–4, 237–8
Inca Empire 118, 154–5, 162, 307
Industrial Revolution 162, 207, 294, 297, 318
intensification of agriculture 306, 318, 319, 326, 328
Inuits 293
Irish Potato Famine 165–6, 225, 329
Iroquois people 128
irradiation see radiation breeding
irrigation 201, 221, 222
ivory:
carving 313
trade 95
Jaktorów game preserve, Poland 108
James I, King 122
Jamestown, Virginia 122
Janzen, Henry 327
Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, human fossils 286
Jerf el Ahmar, Syria 73
Jericho, Jordan Valley 66
jewellery 247, 248
Jola people 224
Jomon culture 216, 218
Jones, Steve 314
Julius Caesar, Gallic Wars 90–91, 104, 194
junglefowl 188–9, 195–6, 240, 330
Juniper, Barrie 264, 289
Juniper, Tony 322–3
jute 213
Kalahari Bushmen 92, 293, 304
Kalamaili Nature Reserve, China 254
Karacadag Mountains, Turkey 65, 68, 289
Kenyon, Dame Kathleen 66
King, William 282–3
Kiowa tribe 92–3
Kipling, Rudyard, ‘The Cat That Walked By Himself’ 1, 8
kumis (fermented dairy product) 311
lactose tolerance 310–311
Lahuradeva, India, archaeological site 218
land speed record 84–5
language, development of 247, 250, 308, 313
L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, archaeological site 106, 121
Lascaux cave, France, paintings 237, 259
Leakey, Richard 285, 286
lentils 55, 223, 301
Leppe, Marcelo 229
Li Shen, ‘Pity the Peasants’ 197
Liao Jongpu 198, 213, 214, 226
lima beans 224
linseed 55
llamas 141
domestication 152
lobsters 48
Longsheng, China, rice fields 104, 197–8, 213–14, 215
lotuses 213
Louis XIV, King of France 161
Lysenko, Trofim 55
Macedonian Empire 222
McGee, Nancy 172
McGrew, Mike 176, 180, 186–7, 205, 324
mad cow disease (BSE) 202–3, 204, 210
Madsudpur, India, archaeological sites 219
Mahagara, India, archaeological site 219
maize (Zea mays mays) 111–38, 307
dating and locations of early domestication 129–33, 216, 302, 307
genetic make-up 126–30, 278
hybridisation, selection and genetic modifications 129, 134–8, 201, 206, 207, 208, 209
introduction to Europe 113–30, 162
maize species and varieties 120–21, 127–30, 133–8
Northern Flint 120–21, 127–8, 132
Southern Dent 129
see also teosintes
malnutrition 198–9, 210, 325
see also famines
mammoths 14, 18, 38, 238, 239, 308
mangoes 199, 211
Mapuche people 150
mare’s milk, consumption of 246, 310–311
Mari, Syria, archaeological site 273
Marie Antoinette, Queen of France 161
maritime exploration 113–18, 122–6, 128–9, 158–9, 235
Martir de Angleria, Pedro 118–19
mastodons 141, 236–7, 239
Matthiolus (herbalist) 120
Max Planck Institute, Leipzig 287
Mayer, August 282
Mayer, Jorge E. 200–201
Mayflower (ship) 122
melanin (pigment):
in dogs 35
in humans 295
Melchett, Peter Mond, 4th Baron 204, 210
Mellanby, Sir Edward 294
melons 211, 271
Mendel, Gregor 32, 51–2
Merychippus (extinct early equid) 232
methane, atmospheric levels of 318, 319
Metzger, Johann 134, 135, 136
mice 25, 35, 313
milk production and consumption 91–8, 103, 107, 246, 309–312
millet 115, 211, 213, 215, 218, 220, 223, 224, 269, 301, 302
Minoan civilisation 192, 309
minotaur (mythological creature) 104, 309
Mithraism 309
monasticism 159–60, 195, 276
Monbiot, George 326
Mongke Khan 112
Mongol Empire 112–13, 249
monocultures 165, 167, 201, 319, 325–6
Monsanto (biotechnology multinational) 184, 201–2, 203–6, 210
monsoons 302
Monte Verde, Chile, archaeological site 140–43, 150, 151, 292
moose and elk 78, 240
morality, and natural selection 316, 317
mortars and grinding stones 56, 57, 214, 218, 301, 302
mouflon (wild sheep) 100
mountain-avens (plant)
71–2
Muscovy ducks 117
musk oxen 38, 234
mutagenic plants 175–6
Myceneans 192, 250
mythology 73–4, 104, 130, 270–71, 308
Native Americans 117–18, 122, 293
hunting and food production 92–3, 126, 128, 224
trading 77
Natufian culture 56–8, 70, 140, 301
natural selection, theory of 2–4, 32–4, 36, 52, 302–3, 316, 317, 321–2
Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis):
diet 94
extinction 37, 287
first identified 281–3
interbreeding with modern humans 283–4, 287–8, 289–90, 298–300, 313
Neolithic Revolution 1, 6, 24, 55, 58, 64, 65–6, 192, 300–307, 317–18
neoteny 315
NERICA (New Rice for Africa project) 225–6
Neruda, Pablo, ‘Ode to Maize’ 111
Nevali Cori, Turkey 73
Newgrange, Ireland, archaeological site 22
dog remains 22–3
Norsemen see Vikings
nut sedge, purple 94
nutmeg 113, 223
oats 53, 54, 56, 176, 215, 301
Older Dryas (climatic event) 72
olives 271, 272, 278
Omo-Kibish, Ethiopia, human skull 285–6
organic farming 6, 328
‘Out of Africa’ theory 284–6, 288–9
Oviedo, Gonzalo Fernandez de 102
Owen, Sir Richard 236
Paarlberg, Robert 210
Pacific Island migrations 189–92
paddy fields 104, 197–8, 213–14, 215, 221–2
paganism 263
Pakefield, Suffolk, archaeological site 233
‘palaeo’ diets 312
palm-oil 325–6
Panama, Isthmus of, creation 232
Pangaea (supercontinent) 116
papaya 199, 208
Paris (mythological figure) 271
Parmentier, Antoine-Augustin 161–2
pea plants 51–2, 55, 223, 301
peaches 219, 274
pearl millet 220, 224, 302
pears 271, 272
Pech Merle cave, France, paintings 237–8, 259
Penn, William 160
Persian Empire 222, 274
pesticides 169, 201–2, 319
phenotypic plasticity 135–8
Phoenicians 192
photosynthesis 66–7, 148
pigeon peas 224
pigs 160, 330
domestication 102, 195, 331
see also boar, wild
pineapples 116–17
Piño, Mario 140, 141
Piperno, Dolores 136
pleiotropy, genetic 36–7
Pliny 119, 120
Pliohippus (extinct early equid) 232
ploughing 104, 107, 198, 309
plums 272
Pocahontas 122
Poets, Ana 67
Poliakov, I.S. 253
Pollan, Michael 167, 304
pollination 3, 271, 275, 278, 320
polyploid organisms 62–3
pomegranates 270, 271, 272
potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) 139–69
dating and locations of early domestication 152–5
genetic make-up 152, 156, 157–8, 163–4
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