by Xingjian Gao
With this in mind, what do we find in Snow in August that may help us better understand his idea of the theatre? The play is made up of three acts. The first two acts dramatize Huineng’s life and death and portray the hero in bold strokes; more importantly, they make visible the spirit of Zen, of which he is the embodiment and manifestation. As the audience is led through the various episodes of Huineng’s life, it appears that Gao Xingjian has abandoned the theatrical experiments of his previous plays and returned to a more traditional, language-based text. Meanwhile, Gao has also incorporated singing and comedic elements, which tend to loosen the plot. The play’s structure is thus made to appear free and casual, breaking away from a naturalistic presentation of Huineng’s life.
Unlike Acts I and II which feature a conventional plot structure, Act III is characterized by free form. It describes in a rather episodic manner, among other things, the practices of various schools of Zen Buddhism more than two hundred years after the death of Huineng. If it can be said to have a storyline—a fire in a Buddhist temple, it is not well defined. In fact, except for the similarity in setting and the presence of the Zen masters, the relevance to Huineng’s story appears tenuous. Huineng passes away at the end of Act II, and for all practical purposes the story has ended when upon Huineng’s death the trees and the mountains in the vicinity suddenly turn white—hence the title “Snow in August.” So why Act III? What function does it serve? Gao has said that it is not necessary for a play to have a balanced or tightly knit plot, but despite having tried his hand at various dramatic forms, he still maintains that structural integrity is essential to any performance (Gao 1993: 187). A salient feature of Gao’s plays in the 1990s is what I would call his “sideshows,” which accompany and complement the main action. In Between Life and Death (1991), Woman’s monologue is punctuated by non-speaking segments performed by Man (Woman’s lover), a nun, a headless woman, and a man on stilts. In Dialogue and Rebuttal (1992), a monk is always present performing acrobatic tricks alongside the protagonists. These “sideshows” enrich the main action,sometimes providing commentary, sometimes serving as a stimulus for the audience to think and feel for themselves. In light of this, Act III of Snow in August is not so atypical, as it can be regarded as an expansion of the sideshow in many of Gao’s plays—a sideshow writ large.
But then again, Act III is more than a sideshow: it is structurally and thematically more important. Hu Yao-heng proposes that Act III depicts an “atmosphere of desolation and absurdity,” and that as the people and the Zen masters are shown to be “shallow” in their understanding of Zen, Act III is a reflection of the period of decline of the Buddhist school founded by Huineng (Hu 2002: 25—26). My view is that the play ends on a positive note. If we say that Huineng’s story in the early part of the play expounds an understanding of Zen in abstract terms, then Act III is the actualisation of life as it should be lived, and if Acts I and II describe the spirit of a saintly patriarch, Act III is the embodiment of that spirit among the people in their everyday lives.
Act III, made up of a number of short episodic sketches, is a kaleidoscope of human activities. First we find Singsong Girl and Writer singing a duet, in which she invokes the names of famous Zen masters, all of whom are Huineng’s disciples and their students. This signifies the passage of time—for instance, Caoshan Benji was the sixth generation disciple of Huineng—and that Zen Buddhism has spread far and wide in China in the span of 250 years. The names are also semantically significant, as they all point to Zen images and symbols. The song is followed by short sketches made up of koan questions: What is Buddha? Where is Buddha? The answers are implicitly provided by the ensuing scenes—Buddha is everywhere and resides in all things. Buddha can be found in moving and splitting bricks, carrying wooden planks, practicing martial arts, doing acrobatic tricks, performing “face changing,” squabbling with one another, singing songs, and doing crazy things. This is reinforced by Singsong Girl’s repetition of her song at the beginning of the Act, again invoking the names of Huineng’s disciples, the Zen masters who have become Buddhas. Then there is the cat-chasing and fire-setting farce, with many characters running around on stage, culminating in Big Master “chopping” (presumably) the cat into two halves, which is one of the manifestations of “craziness” in the Zen Buddhist repertoire. The finale consists mainly of songs sung by all the on-stage characters: Singsong Girl, Writer, all the monks and laymen.They sing of life and death, sickness and health, war and disaster, and the succession of the old by the new, in other words, all the conditions of being human. Life goes on as it should, and the best attitude is to carry on leading our lives as usual and doing the things we have to do. In this way, one will find Buddha and enlightenment. As Gao says, “Zen does not manufacture mystery; it is an understanding. It is eating, drinking, shitting, pissing, and sleeping as usual. It is only an attitude towards living, a thorough understanding of the world and of life.” (Gao 1992c: 195) The idea is not to strive; with non-action and no-mind, one will achieve enlightenment living in the human world and doing worldly things.
Gao Xingjian always talks about the creative impulse in terms of an “inner pulsing”:
The making of an artist is due to his ability to relate his shadowy feelings and impulses to observable images. The “aesthetic sphere”(yijing 意境), so valued in Chinese art and poetry, is entrusting one’s mental state to scenery and reaching the spirit by means of images.” (Gao 2001b: 189-90)
The same principle informs Snow in August, i.e. the spirit of “big freedom” of Zen is revealed through the description of Huineng’s life, the indépendance totale which allows him to act as he pleases to achieve Buddhahood.
To Gao Xingjian, freedom is of the utmost importance in life as in art. Thus the idea of complete abandonment and the latent anti-establishment inclination of Zen appeal to him tremendously. He values his freedom living in exile in France, and he talks about theatre and freedom in the same breath, hoping that the theatrical form, as performance, can enjoy the same kind of freedom as in fiction, poetry and other literary genres. In his view, the theatre is not free—it is bound by its inherent spatial and temporal limitations, the conventions of scene divisions and the “dead-end alley” of naturalism. In his pursuit of a new theatrical form, Gao strives for the kind of freedom that is not restricted by space or time, something akin to the freedom enjoyed by traditional Chinese opera and literature. When this is accomplished,
all kinds of spatial and temporal relationships are possible in the theatre, interweaving fantasy and reality, recollections and imaginations, thinking and dreams, and symbols and narration. The result is multi-level visual imagery. And when this is accompanied by polyglossia, it will lead to multiplicity, which is more appropriate for the molds of perception and thinking of modern men. (Gao 1988a: 137)
Gao’s idea of “omnipotent theatre” is associated with and defined by his idea of freedom. As director of Snow in August, he wanted everything to start from zero. He required his actors, who had been schooled in Beijing opera, to “set aside [their] traditional moves and postures, set aside all the existing forms of Peking Opera, and start everything afresh”—they were to be spontaneous, and to extricate themselves from Beijing opera completely, so that they could develop the characters according to their own feelings towards their roles and the storyline (Chang 2002b: 13). Snow in August is the manifestation of Gao Xingjian’s understanding of the essence of Zen (Fu 2002: 246), which has provided him with the inspiration and the means to carry out his ideas of theatre and dramatic performance. As he says, “Zen is both extrication and a spiritual sphere. Human beings are confined to a specific time and space, and they want to pursue freedom. Zen is an inspiration to artists living in the world of reality.” (Gao 2001a: 146-47) In embodying an integrative vision of form and content, Snow in August comes close to being Gao Xingjian’s ideal theatre.
A few words on the translation. My aim is to produce a close and faithful rendering of the play. I intend the
translation to be natural, so that it will flow with the ease of original composition in English. However, there are also times when it is appropriate to preserve the Chineseness of the source text. The wordplays and puns are retained as much as possible, as are the songs and their rhymes—I try to resist the temptation to sacrifice sense and naturalness for the sake of rhyming.
The reader may find that the register of the dialogue may appear to fluctuate. At times it may appear formal, as befits the mannerisms, grace and solemnity of religious discourse; at other times it may be colloquial and closer to everyday conversation. This was done in adherence to the original style of the source text, which, like Gao Xingjian’s theatre, seeks to be all-encompassing and integrative.
I hope that the translation can serve both as a performance text for the stage as well as a reading text, which can be enjoyed as literature and subjected to analysis with all the original literariness intact and unsullied. Translation is always a matter of choice and balance. I also hope that I have made the right choices and struck the right balance that this fascinating theatrical piece deserves.
I wish to extend my thanks to Professor Peter Crisp of the English Department, Chinese University of Hong Kong for reading through the manuscript and making valuable suggestions, and to Ms. Jennifer Eagleton of the Translation Department of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, my daughter Natalia and my son Ian for their assistance in editing and proofreading.
Gilbert C. F. Fong
References
Artaud, Antonin (2001). “The Theatre and Its Double,” in Artaud on Theatre, ed. by Claude Schumacher with Brian Singleton. London: Methuen. Revised edition.
Chang Meng-jui 張夢瑞 (2002a). “Shashibiya ye fengkuang: Gao Xingjian tan Bayue Xue hua shiji yanchu” 莎士比亞也瘋狂: 高行健談《八月雪》劃世紀演出 (An Epic Tale in the Making: An Interview with Gao Xingjian), trans. by Phil Newel. In Ronghe dongxi, chaoyue chuantong. Bayue Xue pojian erchu 《融合東西，超越傳統: 八月雪破繭而出》 (A Groundbreaking Fusion of East and West, The Making of Snow in August). Taipei: Council for Cultural Affairs, pp. 10-24.
Chang Meng-jui 張夢瑞 (2002b). “Po jian er chu: Bayue Xue diaozhuo quanneng yanyuan” 破繭而出: 八月雪雕琢全能演員 (Creating Holistic Performers for Snow in August), trans. by Robert Taylor. In Ronghe dongxi, chaoyue chuantong. Bayue Xue pojian erchu 《融合東西，超越傳統: 八月雪破繭而出》 (A Groundbreaking Fusion of East and West, The Making of Snow in August). Taipei: Council for Cultural Affairs, pp. 12-17.
Chang Meng-jui 張夢瑞 (2002c). “Wu zhong sheng you you ruo wu: Bayue Xue yi quanxin xiju xingtai huan chanzong yuanmao” 無中生有有若無: 《八月雪》以全新戲劇型態還禪宗原貌 (Made From Scratch: The Premiere of “Total Theater”), trans. by Phil Newel. In Ronghe dongxi, chaoyue chuantong. Bayue Xue pojian erchu 《融合東西，超越傳統: 八月雪破繭而出》 (A Groundbreaking Fusion of East and West, The Making of Snow in August). Taipei: Council for Cultural Affairs, pp. 18-25.
Chen Hsiu-hui 陳秀慧 (2002). “Bayue xue ju zhong renwu de lishi fengmao” 《八月雪》劇中人物的歷史風貌 (Historical records of the characters in Snow in August). Performing Arts Journal 《台灣戲專學刊》, Dec. 2002, No. 5, pp. 7-19.
Fong, Gilbert C. F. (1999). “Introduction,” in The Other Shore: Plays by Gao Xingjian, trans. by Gilbert C. F. Fong. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.
Fu Yu-hui 傅裕惠 (2002). “Zonglun Bayue Xue xin shiji xiqu yishu de linghang” 綜論《八月雪》，新世紀戲曲藝術的領航 (Some general comments on Snow in August: The helmsman of the art of drama and opera in the new century). Performing Arts Journal 《台灣戲專學刊》, Dec. 2002, No. 5, pp. 232-46.
Gao Xingjian (1984). Yeren 野人 (Wild man). Taipei: Lianhe Wenxue, 2001.
Gao Xingjian (1988a). “Yao shenmeyang de xiju” 要什麼樣的戲劇 (What kind of drama do I want?). Lianhe wenxue 《聯合文學》, No. 41.
Gao Xingjian (1988b). Dui yizhong xiandaiju de zhuiqiu 《對一種現代劇的追求》 (In pursuit of a modern drama). Beijing: Zhongguo Xiju Chubanshe (quoted in Quah, 1999: 94).
Gao Xingjian (1991). “Wode xiju he wode yaoshi” 我的戲劇和我的鑰匙 (My kind of drama and the key to my writing), in Gao Xingjian, Meiyou zhuyi 《沒有主義》 (None-ism). Hong Kong: Cosmos Books, 1996.
Gao Xingjian (1992a). “Zhongguo liuwang wenxue de kunjing” 中國流亡文學的困境 (The dilemma of Chinese exile literature), in Gao Xingjian, Meiyou zhuyi 《沒有主義》 (None-ism). Hong Kong: Cosmos Books, 1996.
Gao Xingjian (1992b). “Some Suggestions on Producing Dialogue and Rebuttal,” in The Other Shore: Plays by Gao Xingjian, trans. by Gilbert C. F. Fong. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1999.
Gao Xingjian (1992c). “‘Duihua yu fanjie’ daobiaoyan tan” 《對話與反詰》導表演談 (On directing and acting in Dialogue and Rebuttal), in Gao Xingjian, Meiyou zhuyi 《沒有主義》 (None-ism). Hong Kong: Cosmos Books, 1996.
Gao Xingjian (1993). “Ling yizhong xiju” 另一種戲劇 (Another kind of drama), in Gao Xingjian, Meiyou zhuyi 《沒有主義》 (None-ism). Hong Kong: Cosmos Books, 1996.
Gao Xingjian (2001a). “Shijian, kongjian yu chan” 時間、空間與禪 (Time, space and Zen), in Wenxue de liyou 《文學的理由》 (The reason for literature). Hong Kong: Ming Pao Press.
Gao Xingjian (2001b). “Yijing yu zizai” 意境與自在 (Aesthetic sphere and being at ease), in Wenxue de liyou 《文學的理由》 (The reason for literature). Hong Kong: Ming Pao Press.
Gao Xingjian (2002). “Chuangzao chu yizhong jianli zai dongfang chuan-tong xiju gongdishang de xiandai yinyue gewuju—yizhong chang, nian, zuo, da de quanneng de xiju” 創造出一種建立在東方傳統戲劇功底上的現代音樂歌舞劇——一種唱、念、做、打的全能的戲劇 (Creating a modern music and dance theatre built on Oriental tradition—An omnipotent theatre of singing, dialogue, movement, and martial arts). Performing Arts Journal 《台灣戲專學刊》, Dec. 2002, No. 5, pp. 5-6.
Hu, John Y. H. (2002). “August Snow: An Appreciation,” trans. by Daniel T. Hu, in Bayue xue 《八月雪》 (August Snow) (Program volume). Taipei: Council for Cultural Affairs, Executive Yuan, pp. 24-27.
Meyerhold, Vsevolod (1998). Meyerhold on Theatre, ed. and trans. by Edward Braun. London: Methuen. Revised edition.
Quah Sy Ren (1999). “The Theatre of Gao Xingjian: Experimentation Within the Chinese Context and Towards New Modes of Representation,” Ph.D. dissertation. Faculty of Oriental Studies, The University of Cambridge.
Quah Sy Ren (2001). “Space and Suppositionality in Gao Xingjian’s Theatre,” in Soul of Chaos: Critical Perspectives on Gao Xingjian, edited by Kwok-kan Tam. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.
Zhao Yiheng 趙毅衡 (1999). Jianli yizhong xiandai chan ju: Gao Xingjian yu Zhongguo xiandai shiyan xiju 《建立一種現代禪劇: 高行健與中國現代實驗戲劇》 (Establishing a modern Zen drama: Gao Xingjian and contemporary Chinese experimental drama). Taipei: Erya Chubanshe 爾雅出版社.
Act I, Scene 1 The young Huineng.
Act I, Scene 1 Boundless Treasure: “Boundless troubles occupy …”
*August Snow, presented by the Council for Cultural Affairs, Taiwan, December 19-22, 2002. Directed by Gao Xingjian.
Act I, Scene 2 The Dharma is passed on at East Mountain Temple.
Act II, Scene 1 The “Wind and Banner Controversy”
Act II, Scene 3 Huineng gives his first lesson.
Act II, Scene 3 Singsong Girl: “… is there snow in August?”
Act III Pandemonium reigns in the Hall of Worship.
Act III Fire in the temple.
Annotation
[1-1] Platform Sutra 壇經 (Tan jing), the influential Zen Buddhist classic, which has close to thirty different editions, was attributed to Huineng. It is also the only Buddhist sutra written by a Chinese master—Indian masters wrote all the others. The first few chapters of the book are H
uineng’s autobiography, which provide the sources for Snow in August. The ensuing chapters contain his lectures on Zen Buddhism. Fahai, Huineng’s disciple, recorded the words of the master and compiled them into the book, to which he also wrote a preface. Even though Snow in August follows Huineng’s story in the Platform Sutra quite closely, there are also a few minor changes. For example, the character Boundless Treasure is given more characterization and made more dramatic in the play. For a detailed analysis of the play’s characters and their stories in historical records, please see Chen, 2002: 7-19.
Snow in August
Our play traverses 250 years of Chinese history from the middle of the seventh century (High Tang Dynasty) to the end of the ninth century (Late Tang Dynasty). The legend of Huineng, the sixth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism is told in drama and song.
Characters in order of appearance:
Huineng, the sixth Patriarch (633-713)
Boundless Treasure, a Buddhist nun
Hongren, the fifth Patriarch (602-675)
Shenxiu, a Zen master (c. 606-706)
Lu Zhen, a painter
Huiming, a Buddhist monk
Yinzong, a Zen Master (627-713)
