Technical Skill
The string accompaniment must also take its part. The instruments are all treated as individuals, not merely as filling up harmonies. Therefore they do not reiterate one note in each chord, but move about. The wind instruments play in four part harmony which is complete in itself. It might perhaps appear that this is merely a display of learning and contrapuntal skill, but a close examination of Bach’s most elaborate works will reveal the fact that the greater the contrapuntal task he sets himself, the more expressive is the music. Such choruses exhibit the highest possible technical skill, but all this is as nothing compared to the wonderfully artistic effect that the composition as a whole produces.
In some cases Bach writes an organ obbligato part in addition to the “continuo,” or figured bass. Thus the opening symphony of “Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir,” composed for the election of the Town Council at Leipsic in 1737, consists of the “Prelude” of the violin solo suite No. 6 transposed to D,
on the obbligato organ, with accompaniments for three trumpets, drums, two oboes, strings and continuo (to be played on another organ59).
Bach seems to have tried every kind of experiment with his orchestra. For instance in “Freue dich erlöste Schaar” an aria is accompanied by a flute, a muted violin, the rest of the strings pizzicato, and the organ part to be played staccato. One peculiarity, however, of his orchestration is that the combination of instruments he chooses for a particular movement remains the same throughout. Rests occur in the parts, but there is no variety of treatment within the movement. Thus in the above-mentioned aria the lower strings having begun pizzicato play pizzicato throughout, the first violins remain muted throughout, and the organ plays staccato throughout. Again, in the opening chorus of “Es ist nichts gesundes,” referred to above, the wind never plays anything but the chorale in four parts. Of variety there is plenty, but it is not produced by modern methods.
Bach was just as careful in the choice of instruments for his particular effects as in the choice of stops in organ playing. Many of the instruments he used are now obsolete, and their intonation must have been very faulty. Yet if they had the particular tone colour he considered fitting he would not hesitate to employ them, to the exclusion of, or together with, the more manageable instruments such as the violin, viola, oboe, &c. Amongst the obsolete instruments he employed to accompany the voices in his cantatas and Passion music were violoncello piccolo,60 viola da gamba, taille,61 viola d’amore, cornet, oboe d’amore,62 oboe da caccia, lituus, violetta, violino piccolo.
Cantatas
Some of the cantatas are called solo cantatas; they consist of a series of movements usually founded on a chorale, for one or more solo voices, and contain no choruses, though occasionally a chorale is to be sung by the congregation.
The cantatas are often called by Bach “Concertos.” Thus “Bereitet die Wege” for fourth Sunday in Advent is entitled “Concerto à 9, 1 oboe, 2 violini, 1 viola, 1 violoncello, soprano, alto, tenor, bass, col basso per organo di J. S. Bach.”
Chapter IX
The Matthew Passion and B Minor Mass63
The Lutheran Services
It was Luther’s chief intention to make the congregation take more part in the service of the Church than they had formerly done. The first thing therefore was to diminish or abolish the use of Latin; and the people were made to sing what they could understand and appreciate.
Luther translated a number of excellent old church hymns, and made new tunes for them, being assisted in this work by friends. The newly arranged hymns were to take the place of the Graduals, Offertories, &c.
He also translated and reorganised the chief parts of the Mass; thus the Kyrie became “Gott Vater in Ewigkeit,” the Gloria, “Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr,” the Creed, “Wir glauben all an einen Gott,” and the Agnus Dei, “Christe du Lamm Gottes.”
The Preface, the Benedictus, and Hosanna were left in Latin.
Besides the chorales, he instituted the motet for the choir, which was accompanied ordinarily by the organ, but on high festivals by cornets and trombones. The style of the motets was that of Palestrina and Orlando Lasso, and the texts were chosen from the Bible, especially the Psalms. On days of humiliation, a long Litany and several Latin hymns were sung instead of the Gloria. In Holy Week and on Palm Sunday and Good Friday, instead of the Epistle, the Story of the Passion was sung antiphonally from one of the gospels by two priests before the altar.
But several inconveniences gradually arose. In spite of Luther’s urgent order, “A priest must be able to sing,” there were, in course of time, only a few who could, and those sang badly — most priests could not even keep to a single note.
Let us imagine an unbroken monotone or monotonous chant badly intoned, of the length of perhaps over one hundred verses; and the service, being lengthened by the addition of hymns, &c., occupied sometimes from four to five hours, all in one wearisome unison, and entirely deprived of the variations which gave life to the Catholic service. Moreover if anyone came late or left early he was severely reprimanded.
The German Mass
Luther said, “We arrange the German Mass as well as we can; our successors will improve it.” But for a hundred years after his death men held most conscientiously to the letter of his sayings, and when alterations were made, they were done so sparingly that they were of little effect. The Latin songs were almost all assigned to other services, e.g. the “Rex Christe” was assigned to the vespers, the “Crux fidelis” to Thursday in Holy Week, and the singing of the Passion before the altar was changed to a mere reading from the pulpit.
But when read, only a very small portion of the congregation either heard or understood it in a large and well-filled church; and soon there arose disorders, especially when the old Protestant strictness of discipline began to decline, and the Thirty Years’ War had produced much roughness in manners. A way out of the difficulty was found, which must be mentioned, though it only lasted a few years. It was certainly conceived in accordance with Luther’s principles, but it was soon found to be entirely impracticable. The congregation were themselves to sing the Passion story. For this purpose a song was composed by Paul Stockmann (“Jesu Leiden, Pein und Tod”) containing all the chief points in the story. Not only did the composition prove entirely unsatisfactory in itself, but can one imagine four and thirty strophes of eight lines each being sung straight away to one of the dullest and most monotonous melodies that was ever composed!
During this period, however, Figural music had, outside the Church, been gradually developing in a freer and more easily appreciated manner, and was therefore becoming widely cultivated.
Introduction of Figural Music
It found favour with the people, since there was no law against its use, so that it began to enter the Church, not in ordinary services, but on festivals. The result was most favourable. We find expressly stated the attention and the devout pleasure with which the congregation listened to the conjunction of song and strings. Gradually, therefore, this music was received into favour, first on festivals and afterwards on Sundays in the principal churches, and that without any special care that the text and expression had any regular connection with particular parts of the Liturgy, much less with the special subject of the sermon. The cantor and music director in fact did not know beforehand what the subject was to be.
Everything else that had been used from former times remained, except that after Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony, entered the Roman Church in 1697, and organised such splendid services in his Court church as had never been before heard in North Germany, more freedom was allowed in the Lutheran churches.
The celebration of the Passion remained as before, and we have only to add that during the Fast and Advent weeks all instruments, including the organ, had to be silent, even during the singing of the thirty-four strophes.
The Origin of Bach’s Passion Music
At last there came to the head of spiritual affairs at Leipsic a
man of decided character, highly esteemed as a learned theologian, a very impressive preacher, and respected for his strictness of teaching and life, Salomon Deyling, Doctor and Professor of Theology, &c. (1677-1755). He could no longer endure the state of things in Passion Week, and, since in 1723 the great and famous Sebastian Bach had become cantor of the Thomas School and music director of the two chief churches at Leipsic, he associated himself with him in order to see if his ideas could be put in practice. The idea which he propounded to Bach was this: “The early arrangement of the service was the best, but was only suitable to its own date: we must try and make our arrangement on the model of the earliest, but in keeping with modern requirements.
“On each Palm Sunday and Good Friday the history of the Passion of the Lord is made known antiphonally, according to one or other of the Evangelists, exactly in accordance with the sacred writer’s words! Who could improve on this? They must be sung, how else are they to be understood by all? But they must be sung by some one who can sing! namely by you: and so that everything may sound well and be impressive they must be musically sung, and accompanied.
“Your best singer, who can pronounce clearly and well, must sing the words of the Evangelist in recitative, and, in order to produce more impression and life and variety, the other persons of the story must be represented by other singers, and the Jewish people by a chorus. At the chief points in the story there will be pauses, during which, by means of an aria, the congregation shall lay to heart what they have heard; and that all of us shall be refreshed from time to time, there shall be well chosen verses from all the known hymns, in which the congregation can join. Now, your business is to carry all this out in a connected and artistic manner.” And thus arose Bach’s Passion music, which completely fulfilled everything that was expected of it. However few there were who could understand and honour and enjoy them as art works, these services, and Bach’s method of treating them, were gladly received by the congregation, and the performance of such oratorios became every time a truly edifying and Christian artistic feast.
This account refers of course chiefly to Leipsic. It is supposed that the decay of the performance of the Passion was due to the pupils and sons of Bach, who tried to improve on his and Deyling’s arrangement by the introduction of Italian and lighter methods, which, though pleasing, were soon found to be unsuitable to the simple words of the Bible and Hymn-book.
Early Passion Services
The custom of performing the Passion in an epic and dramatic form during Holy Week is exceedingly ancient. It exists still in the Catholic Church in an ancient traditional way, consisting of the relation of the gospel narrative by one singer, the speeches of Jesus by another, while a third represents the crowd called turba. Music and the dramatic element are little represented, and the performers only make use of accent or intonations. In the Reformed Church the performance of the Passion in German, and in artistic style, did not take place earlier than the last half of the sixteenth century. Winterfeld finds the earliest Passion music arranged for chorus after the Gospel of St Matthew in Keuchenthal’s Gesangbuch, Wittenberg, 1573. A short instrumental piece precedes it and another closes it, and for the rest, only the words of the turba are allotted to chorus. A similar work is the Passion according to St John, which is found in Selneccer’s Gesangbuch, 1587, but here there are hymns to be sung by the congregation.
The Passion according to St John, of Bartholomäus Gese, 1588, begins with a five voice chorus, followed by the gospel narration by a tenor in Plainsong. The words of Christ are usually sung by four chorus voices, the words of Peter and Pilate by three voices, those of the maid and servant of the High Priest by two voices, the turba are in five voices, and a five voice chorus concludes the work.
Heinrich Schütz, 1585-1672, in whose “Resurrection of the Lord” modern forms are found, has very sparingly used similar forms in his Passions according to all four Evangelists, but chiefly in the concluding choruses. The Passions in Vopelius’ Gesangbuch, 1682, show that the early forms were still in use at that date.
The Passion of Capellmeister Johann Sebastiani, 1672, at Königsberg, shows an advance in form here and there; and here also for the first time do we find the artistic use of hymn tunes, while in Schütz only the final movements of his Passions have any connection with the chorale. The biblical narrative is no longer in plainsong, but recitative, accompanied either by two violins or two violas and bass, and this is the first example of instrumental accompaniment in a Passion music. The turba are in four voice chorus, with a fifth part in high tenor for the Evangelist. Two violins, four violas and bass always accompany him. The hymns are directed only to have their melodies sung, the remaining parts being played by the strings.
A remarkable appearance was that of the Passion oratorios at Hamburg, in which Handel, Keiser and Mattheson introduced the regular song forms, the recitative, aria, and the duet of the opera, and in such a method as only could be performed by very highly trained singers. At first the words of Scripture in their original formed the basis.
In 1704, however, an entirely new departure was made in “The bleeding and dying Jesus” of Reinhold Keiser, with words by Hunold-Menantes. Here there was no Evangelist, nor were words of the Scripture introduced, but three cantatas or soliloquies, similar to dramatic scenes, took an important place. They were called the “Lamentation of Mary,” the “Tears of Peter,” and the “Lovesong of the Daughter of Zion.”
The novelty, which excited the fiercest criticism and raised a great contest, did not take root, although through its means a new way was opened up. For this attempt led the Hamburg Councillor Brockes to write a musical poem of a similar kind, in which the evangelist was retained in order to fill the gaps between the scenes.
This composition, which was greatly admired, was set to music by Keiser, and afterwards by Handel, Mattheson and Telemann. The first performance of Keiser’s setting took place in Holy week in 1712, and it is of special interest, since Bach took some of the words for the arias in his St John Passion.
Passion Settings
In the Matthew Passion Bach follows that of Sebastiani with the addition of new forms derived from the drama, but enriched and ennobled by the mind of the Master. Scripture words and hymns no longer satisfied his contemporaries or himself; and as long as the kernel of the work was scriptural, according to use consecrated by time, no objection could be made to the introduction of what had already been accepted in other services in the Church. Only the soliloquies, those theatrical scenes in which biblical persons appear with words other than biblical, he would not introduce, for it was too like the stage. Thus in a form, which though new, was intimately connected with the old, did the Passions of Bach appear, and the congregation took part by singing the chorales. It is not known for certain how many Passions Bach wrote; the number is said to be five.
Regarding the author and composer of the St Luke’s Passion nothing is known for certain, for Bach gives neither in his copy. The arguments for its being his work are that it is in his writing, and is possibly a youthful composition, and that he recopied it in later years so that it should not be forgotten; while the chief argument against its genuineness is its insignificance. The Bachgesellschaft publish it with the above reservation.
It consists mostly of chorales in four parts with short recitatives between them. There are few arias or choruses, and a sermon is to be preached in the middle.64
Matthew Passion
The first performance of the Matthew Passion took place on Good Friday, 1729. The words, where not scriptural, are by Picander. All the resources of art are employed in this tremendous work. A double chorus, a ripieno chorus of sopranos, a double orchestra and double organ part; a part for the Evangelist which calls forth the very highest powers of the greatest singers; all the instruments known in Bach’s time are at various points brought into requisition. We have already alluded (p. 104) to the effect of the opening chorus when sung in the Thomas Church. The never-ceasing flow of quavers i
n 12-8 time, the call to the contemplation of the Passion, the questioning second chorus which finally unites with the first, the solemn and dignified march of the orchestra, have a devotional expression which has never been surpassed. Throughout the work the words of the Saviour are accompanied by strings alone in four parts, with the continuo (which was never omitted in those days). The chorales, which are of frequent occurrence, are to be sung in unison by the congregation, and harmonised by the choir and instruments. The words of the turba or Jewish people are always allotted to double choruses, which throw the expressions backwards and forwards at each other in a turbulent manner (see p. 123).
The disciples are also represented by a double chorus, as are the Christian congregation; and the music of the various double choruses is in keeping with sentiments which might be supposed to actuate the singers. The arias which fill the “pauses” suggested by Deyling are allotted to an alto, soprano, tenor, or bass, and are accompanied, in addition to the organ, by two flutes, or two oboi d’amore, or oboi da caccia, or by a viola da gamba, or by a violin solo with string band.
After Bach’s death this magnificent work was performed at St Thomas Church till the end of the seventeenth century, when it was laid aside until revived by Mendelssohn in 1829, just one hundred years after its first performance.
Ja nicht auf das Fest auf dass nicht ein Aufruhr werde Weissage
B Minor Mass
The gigantic B Minor Mass was gradually composed. At first it was to have been a “missa brevis,” but the rest was added later. Hilgenfeldt65 makes the following remarks on it:— “This Mass is one of the noblest works of Art, full of inventive genius, depth of feeling, and astonishing artistic power: there is no other of the same calibre which can be compared to it. It was originally written for the Saxon Court, and was first performed at Dresden. On his other compositions of the same kind Bach has expended far less energy. It is possible that a Protestant artist such as he was could not entirely enter into the religious point of view which he was obliged to take in composing for the Catholic Church, and several of his other masses are merely collected from portions of his cantatas.”
Delphi Masterworks of Johann Sebastian Bach Page 69
