The Jewish Garrison at Elephantine
Egypt’s Persian occupation led to a new influx of foreigners into the country, including the establishment of Jewish garrisons at Hermopolis and
Memphis. But a Temple to Yahweh, and a garrison of Jewish mercenaries,
had already existed at Elephantine before this time. Aramaic papyri provide a snapshot of life at this temple during the 27th Dynasty, notably recording that the local priests of Khnum destroyed the Temple of Yahweh in 410
BCE. No reason is given for this attack, and the temple was later rebuilt.
These documents also reveal that the Jewish settlers received rations from the local storehouse, and married Egyptians.
Egypt is Freed and Kush Expands
The king that freed Egypt from the Persians was Amyrtaeus of Sais, the first and only pharaoh of the 28th Dynasty. He began his revolt in 405 BCE, probably in the Delta. At the time, Cyrus, younger brother of the Persian King War and Trade with the Pharaohs.indd 171
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Artaxerxes II, was hoping to secure Persia’s crown for himself. Although Cyrus’ bid for the throne failed (he was killed in battle), it all worked out rather nicely for Amyrtaeus: for one, Artaxerxes’ troops had been on their way to quash the rebellion in Egypt when they were redirected to fight against Cyrus, distracting them from the uprising; and two, after Cyrus lost the battle, his admiral, Tamos, fled to Egypt with thirty ships. Seeing this readymade fleet, Amyrtaeus executed Tamos, along with his children, and kept the ships for himself. Meanwhile, forgetting about Egypt for the moment, Artaxerxes travelled back to Susa, having realized the pressing need to secure his rule at home. So, for the time being at least, Egypt was free.
Armed with a fleet of ships and backed by an army of Egyptian warriors, Amyrtaeus now probably marched on Memphis, where a garrison of Persian
troops was stationed. Knowing that no backup was on the way, these surrendered and switched allegiance to the Egyptians. It was probably the same in Upper Egypt, where further Persian garrisons were posted. And so, after securing the country, upon the death of Darius II in 404 BCE, Amyrtaeus formally declared independence from the Persian Empire. Taking the
throne, he changed his name to Psamtik, either to highlight his descent from the illustrious founder of the 26th Dynasty, or to create an association with him. Things were looking up, both for Egypt and Amyrtaeus, until
the newly minted pharaoh’s reign was suddenly cut short by a man from
Mendes named Nepherites. The usurper fought and captured Amyrtaeus,
and then had him executed in Memphis – not the best reward for liberating your country, I’m sure you’ll agree.
Meanwhile, in Nubia, the Kushites under King Harsiyotef (404–369
BCE) were also fighting rebellions and incursions across their territory. Over Harsiyotef ’s long reign, he fought nine campaigns, battling nomads called Rehrehes in the northern Butana and in Meroe, and the Medjay in the Eastern Desert. Some of his campaigns were fought in Lower Nubia. Harsiyotef ’s troops pursued one group of enemies as far as Aswan – the first evidence for the Kushites campaigning this far north since the 25th Dynasty – and fought
‘rebels’ at Mirgissa, capturing the town. This repeated need to campaign in Lower Nubia could show that the region was resistant to Kushite control, and wanted to be independent of both the Kushites and the Egyptians.
The Final Years of Independence
Now under Nepherites I of the 29th Dynasty, the Egyptians, faced with the threat of impending Persian (re-)invasion, set out to make life as difficult as War and Trade with the Pharaohs.indd 172
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possible for their former overlords. Probably using Tamos’ captured fleet, they attacked coastal cities in the Levant, reducing the chance of a seaborne Persian attack, and probably constructed new ships to add to their numbers.
In 396 BCE, they also sent grain and equipment for 100 ships to support the Spartan fleet at Rhodes (they were intercepted along the way, but it’s the thought that counts). Three years later, in 393 BCE, Hakor (called Achoris by the Greeks) succeeded Nepherites, and ruled for the next thirteen years.
Continuing the spirit of defiance, he sent fifty triremes to support Evagoras, the king of Salamis in Cyprus, Egypt’s ally in the fight against Persia.
Evagoras successfully repelled the Persians, and even seized Tyre, but was later forced to surrender Cyprus in 380 BCE. Persia’s attempts to retake Egypt in 385 and 383 BCE failed. Hakor was then succeeded by Nepherites II, who only reigned for four months before being deposed by his general, Nectanebo – now King Nectanebo I.
Nectanebo’s act of usurpation founded the 30th Dynasty, the family that would rule over the final four decades of Egyptian independence (380–342
BCE). Like their predecessors in the 26th Dynasty, the 30th Dynasty relied on foreign mercenaries for their power and strength, particularly Greek mercenaries, and foreign allies, such as the Phoenicians. But unlike in earlier times, these mercenaries predominantly came from mainland Greece, and
only travelled to Egypt when needed. The Egyptians also hired famous foreign generals to support them. Expecting the Persians to invade at any time, Nectanebo fortified the north-east Delta and coast, and had soldiers monitor all routes into Egypt. The anticipated attack came in 373 BCE, when the Persian Satrap of Syria Pharanabazos led his army to the Mendesian
branch of the Nile. Nectanebo’s defences held strong. The Egyptians
forced Pharanabazos to retreat. A second invasion, in 372 BCE, was also thwarted. Artaxerxes II now turned his attention to rebellions at home, leaving Nectanebo I to end his life in peace.
Upon taking the throne, Nectanebo’s son Teos sought to take advan-
tage of widespread unrest across the Persian Empire: parts of Anatolia were already revolting, and the empire had only a limited military presence in the Levant. It was the perfect time to launch a campaign. The Egyptians hired the Athenian General Chabrias to oversee the construction of ships and to train Egyptian naval officers. Chabrias also advised Teos to implement a system of heavy taxation across the country, particularly aimed at the temples, to raise funds for the campaign. It worked, but wasn’t a particularly popular move among the people or priests. In the end, Teos managed to raise a force of 80,000 Egyptian troops, 10,000 Greek mercenaries, and 200 triremes. He War and Trade with the Pharaohs.indd 173
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also hired the veteran general and king of Sparta Agesilaus II, who arrived with 1,000 troops and thirty advisors. Egypt was ready for war.
The Egyptian army entered Phoenicia in 361 BCE, led by Teos him-
self. Below him, Agesilaus oversaw the Greek mercenaries, Chabrias the
naval fleet, and Nectanebo – Teos’ nephew – the Egyptian troops. The
forces of Teos and Agesilaus remained in Phoenicia, securing the area,
while Nectanebo and the Egyptian troops marched into Syria. The scene
was set for a great battle, but it wasn’t to be. Back in Egypt, Teos’ brother, Tjahapimau, revolted, and sent a message to Nectanebo, asking him to
seize the kingship. At the same time, a man from Mendes – home of the
earlier 29th Dynasty – also claimed the throne. The Delta was falling into chaos. Back in the Levant, the Egyptian troops pledged their allegiance to Nectanebo, who then approached Chabrias and Agesilaus for their support. Agesilaus consulted with his authorities in Sparta, and was advised to make the decision alone; he sided with Nectanebo. Chabrias, meanwhile, remained loyal to Teos, but it was a futile move. Realizing his dire situation
– all of the Egyptian and mercenary troops had turned against him – Teos fled to the Persian court, where he was received by Artaxerxes II. (A planned Persian assault on Egypt, seemingly involving Teos, would l
ater be abandoned due to Artaxerxes’ death in 358 BCE.) Meanwhile, Nectanebo and his Egyptian troops, aided by Agesilaus, left the Levant for Egypt and defeated the Mendesian usurper during a siege. No one now stood in the way of
Nectanebo becoming King Nectanebo II.
Back in Persia, the newly crowned King Artaxerxes III had been left with the challenge of invading Egypt. First of all though, he had to dispose of any pesky rivals for his throne (killing eighty brothers in a single day, according to the first century AD Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus), and assert his right to rule at home. Only later, in 351 BCE, having re-established Persian control over the Levant, did he unleash his massive fighting force on Egypt. The assault ended in failure. Egypt’s defenses – guarding vulnerable access points to the country and strengthened over recent decades – were more than a match for the Persian troops. The experienced Greek generals, Lamius the Spartan and Diophantus the Athenian, hired by Nectanebo, also ensured that the Egyptians could defend themselves from the Persian army.
After the battle, the Egyptians sent 4,000 mercenaries to aid a revolt at Sidon, inspiring the city and others in the region, as well as Cyprus, to throw off the Persian yoke. Artaxerxes’ response was swift and brutal: he executed the rebels, burned down most of Sidon, and sent many of its inhabitants to Babylon and Susa as prisoners. The Persian king had sent a clear message: War and Trade with the Pharaohs.indd 174
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rebellion would not be tolerated. Egypt’s 4,000 mercenaries, led by Mentor of Rhodes, defected to the Persians, and Nectanebo sent no further troops to assist the Phoenician cities. By 345 BCE, the revolt was over. Persia’s domination of the Levant was renewed. Egypt had abandoned its allies, and now, once again, faced the prospect of invasion.
Still, by now, Egypt had become pretty good at preparing for Persian
invasions – they’d had a lot of experience. Nectanebo posted 5,000 men at Pelusium in the eastern Delta, and sent many others to protect the Nile mouths. In total, Egypt’s army consisted of 60,000 Egyptians, 20,000 Greek mercenaries and 20,000 Libyans, all trained and ready to fight. But the Persians too had assembled a massive army, and arrived at Egypt’s borders in 343 BCE with siege machines. They also had a secret weapon: Mentor
of Rhodes’ knowledge of Egypt’s defences and strategies. Perhaps due to Mentor’s intelligence, the Persian commanders divided their attack force into three divisions of Greeks and Persians (one division led by Mentor), and assigned each its own target: one attacked Pelusium, another Bubastis, and the third another city, unnamed in the sources. Overwhelmed, Nectanebo
retreated to Memphis (where according to the fictional ‘Romance of
Alexander,’ he used magic to manipulate and sink model boats, attempting to harm his very real enemies). It was a tactical miscalculation: hearing of the king’s retreat, the Greek mercenaries defending Pelusium handed over the city in return for safe passage back to Greece. The people of Bubastis also surrendered, fearing that the Persians would burn their city down. Other cities followed suit. The door had been opened to the Persians. It could no longer be shut.
Accepting defeat, Nectanebo II, king of Egypt, gathered up his posses-
sions and fled to Nubia. He then vanishes from history, except for a single mention of him as king on the walls of Edfu Temple a year after the Persian invasion. This raises the possibility that he made an attempt to reclaim his lost kingdom (or that the priests at Edfu were woefully behind on current affairs). Artaxerxes III, meanwhile, became the first Persian king in sixty years to sit on the throne of Egypt. It was probably still warm.
The Second Persian Period
Egypt’s fall in 342 BCE brought about a renewed period of Persian rule, sometimes referred to as the 31st Dynasty or simply The Second Persian Period (342–332 BCE). Artaxerxes treated his reclaimed kingdom with immense
brutality: first, the Persians demolished the fortifications of Egypt’s main War and Trade with the Pharaohs.indd 175
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cities, ensuring that their inhabitants couldn’t protect themselves from any future Persian attack (just in case anyone thought about rebelling again), and Persian garrisons were placed at important centres, including Pelusium. The king then robbed Egypt’s sacred shrines of gold and silver, and took away the temples’ sacred texts, which were later sold back to the priests by the Persian Vizier Bagoas. Some temples and tombs were destroyed entirely. Artaxerxes then installed a satrap at Memphis to rule in his name, and left the country for Babylon, taking one of Nectanebo’s sons and other captives along with him.
Over the decade that followed, Egyptian rebellions were frequent. The
best-known was led by a shadowy figure called Khababash, who perhaps
came from Sais. According to Diodorus Siculus, Bagoas, the aforemen-
tioned Persian vizier, poisoned Artaxerxes III in 338 BCE, bringing about a crisis at the Persian court – it was the perfect time for Khababash to seize Egypt for himself. For the two year period of his kingship, roughly from 338–336 BCE, Khababash is known from a variety of small artefacts, as well as a marriage contract from Thebes, and an Apis bull sarcophagus from
Memphis. He is also mentioned on the Satrap Stele, dated to the Ptolemaic Period; this mentions that the rebel pharaoh donated land in the Delta to the Temple of Buto, and inspected all the branches of the Nile that flowed into the Mediterranean – he must have known that the Persians wouldn’t be distracted for long. And he was right. Darius III became king of Persia in 336
BCE, and soon after was back in control of Egypt. The new satrap, Sabaces, perhaps led the force that restored power, for he is attested in his position by 334 BCE. Nothing is known about the fate of Khababash.
But Sabaces wouldn’t get to enjoy his new job for long. In 333 BCE, he
travelled to Issus in southern Anatolia to fight alongside Darius III against Alexander the Great, leaving a man named Mazaces as satrap of Egypt in his place. Away from the action, Mazaces was probably as shocked as anyone when a fleet of ships turned up one day, along with 4,000 Greek mercenaries. Their leader, a Macedonian named Amyntas, had fought for Darius III at Issus, but had deserted the Persian king. Travelling to Egypt via Cyprus, Amyntas had taken Pelusium before continuing on to Memphis. There, he announced news of Sabaces’ death at Issus and how Darius had made him – Amyntas – commander in Egypt. Mazaces must have been sceptical, for a battle was fought outside Memphis. Amyntas was the victor, but while his troops plundered the countryside around the city, a new wave of Egyptians left the safety of Memphis to attack them, killing each man, Amyntas among them. Mazaces,
unexpectedly, had won the war, and remained satrap of Egypt. But his tenure would only last for one more year: Alexander the Great was on his way.
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When Alexander entered Egypt in 332 BCE, welcomed by the Egyptians
at Pelusium and having already taken the Levant, Mazaces was left in a difficult position: unpopular among the Egyptians, outmatched by Alexander’s forces, and with no hope of Persian support arriving, how could he retain control of Egypt? The simple answer: he couldn’t. Surrender was his
only option. So Mazaces left his palace at Memphis and met Alexander at Heliopolis to formally hand over control of Egypt to the Macedonian. After decades of turmoil, suffering, and death, Persia’s quest to dominate Egypt ended with a simple meeting, probably somewhere in the shadow of the
Temple of Re.
A New Age: Ptolemies, Meroites, and Seleucids
Alexander only remained in Egypt for a short time, but it was long enough for him to assume the titles of a pharaoh, visit the Temple of Amun at
Siwa Oasis (and be proclaimed the son of Amun), and found Alexandria.
Nobody can accuse him of l
azing around. Before continuing his wars in the east, Alexander left Egypt under new management, installing a variety of officers in government and leaving behind a large army to ensure control.
After Alexander’s death in the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar II at Babylon in 323 BCE, his generals carved up his empire, with Egypt and the southern Levant passing into the hands of General – later Pharaoh – Ptolemy.
Ptolemy’s rule of Egypt initiated the Ptolemaic Period, a time of Greek-Macedonian pharaohs, from Ptolemy I to the death of Cleopatra VII in
30 BCE. Over the course of roughly 300 years, Egyptian and Greek cul-
ture would fuse and become known across the Mediterranean world. The
Ptolemaic Kingdom stretched from Cyrene in modern Libya, through
Egypt and into the Levant, where the Ptolemies competed for control with the Seleucid Empire, founded by Seleucus, another of Alexander’s generals.
Seleucus had been awarded control of Babylon in 312 BCE, and from there ruled Alexander’s eastern empire. Over time, he had spread westward, eventually taking Anatolia and moving into Syria. This threatened the Ptolemaic Kingdom, and so, over the course of 100 years, the Ptolemies and Seleucids fought six wars (known as the Syrian Wars) for control of the Levant, continuing the unending tug-of-war for dominance over this much abused
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