445 Parker, H, The Roman Legions (Cambridge, 1928), p.27.
446 Polyb. 11.23.1 & 11.33.1. An added complication is that the text is Greek not Latin.
447 Liv.25.39.1, 27.18.10, 28.13.8, 28.14.17, 28.23.8, 28.25.15, 28.33.12, 34.12.6, 34.14.1, 34.14.7, 34.14.10, 34.15.1, 34.19.9, 34.19.10, 34.20.3 & 34.20.5. Sall. Iug. 49.2. See Bell (1965), pp.404–409
Appendix One
448 Plut. Mar.28.3–4
449 If it was indeed Numidicus, it would technically have been illegal for him to hold a second consulship so soon after his first, unless he too received special exemption from the assembly.
450 Vell. 2.12.6
451 Plut. Mar. 28.5
452 Liv. Per. 69
453 After Romulus, and M. Furius Camillus, who defeated the Gauls that had sacked Rome in c.390/386 BC (see Plutarch’s Life of Camillus).
454 Plut. Mar. 27.4–5
455 Ibid.27.6
456 Plut. Mar. 31
457 Diod. 36.12, Cic. Sest. 39, Har Resp. 43.
458 Though there is no clear chronology of the measures he undertook during his first two tribunates and many are interchangeable depending upon ones’ own preferences.
459 Plut. Mar.28.4
460 Vell. 2.12.6
461 Plut. Mar. 30.2. The murder of Memmius can also be found in Liv. Per. 69 and de vir ill. 73.5
462 Evans (1994), pp.158–159.
463 See Beness, J, ‘The Urban Unpopularity of Lucius Appuleius Saturninus’, Antichton 25, 1991, pp.33–61.
464 App. BC. 1.32, Plut. Mar. 30.3. See also Seager, R, ‘The Date of Saturninus’ Murder’, Classical Review 17, 1967, pp.9–10, Badian, E, ‘The Death of Saturninus, Studies in Chronology and Prosopography’, Chiron 14, 1984, pp.101–147 and Evans, R, ‘Saturninus and Glaucia: a quest for power’, Questioning Reputations (Pretoria, 2004), pp.99–131.
465 Oros. 5. 17.6–10
466 Vell. 2.12.6
467 Plut. Mar. 31.1
468 Ibid. 32.2
469 App. BC. 1.33; Oros.5.17.11
470 Dio. fr.28. He had been a former follower of Saturninus and Glaucia, who had been stripped of his equestrian status by Metellus as censor.
471 For other reasons as to why Marius was out in the east see Broughton, T. (1953), pp.210–211.
Appendix Two
472 Different versions of the fragments of Diodorus preserve different names. Diod. 36.8.4
473 Diod. 36.8.
474 Diod. 36.10.1, Flor. 2.711
475 Diod. 36.10.2–3
476 See Sherk (1984), pp.58–66.
Appendix Three
477 Those with Roman citizenship not Latin or Italian status, see Sherwin White, A, The Roman Citizenship (Oxford, 2nd Edition, 1973).
478 Brunt, P, Italian Manpower 225 BC-AD 14 (Oxford, 1971), pp.13–14.
479 See Evans (1988), pp.121–140.
480 Liv. 1.43, Dion. Hal. 4.16–21, Polyb. 6.19.3, Cic. Rep. 2.40, Gell. 16.10.10. See Rathbone, D, ‘The census qualifications of the assidui and the prima classis’, in H. Sancisci-Weerdenburg (ed.) De Agricultura: In Memoriam Pieter Willem de Neeve (Amsterdam, 1993), pp.121–152.
481 Gell. 6.13.My thanks to Professor Tim Cornell for his thoughts on this fragment.
482 Frederiksen, M, ‘The contribution of archaeology to the agrarian problem in the Gracchan period’, Dialoghi di archeologia 4–5, 1970/71, pp.330–357.
483 See Morley, N, ‘The Transformation of Italy, 225–28 B.C.’, Journal of Roman Studies 91, 2001, pp.50–62 and de Ligt, L, ‘Poverty and demography. The case of the Gracchan land reforms”, Mnemosyne 57, 2004, 725–757.
484 Keaveney, A, The Army in the Roman Revolution (London, 2007), p.20.
485 Evans (1988), pp.121–140.
486 See note 426.
Appendix Four
487 Van Ooteghem, J, Les Caecilii Metelli de la République (Brussels, 1967).
488 Polyb. 2.19.8. Also see Gwyn Morgan, M, ‘The Defeat of L. Metellus Denter at Arretium’, Classical Quarterly 22, 1972, pp. 309–325 and Salmon, E, ‘Rome’s Battles with Etruscans and Gauls in 284–282 B.C.’, Classical Philology 30, 1935, pp. 23–31.
489 Valerius Maximus (8.13.2) states that he served for 22 years and was elected four years after his consulship.
490 See Wiseman, T, ‘The Last of the Metelli’, Latomus 24, 1965, pp.52–61.
Appendix Five
491 Matthews, V, ‘The Libri Punici of King Hiempsal’, American Journal of Philology 93, 1972, pp.330–335.
492 Hendrickson, G, ‘The Memoirs of Rutilius Rufus’, Classical Philology 28, 1933, pp.153–175.
References
All translations are taken from the Loeb unless otherwise specified, and amended by the author where necessary.
Below are a list of the full titles of the ancient works referenced and their modern short codes.
Amm. Marc Ammianus Marcellinus – History of Rome
Ampel. Ampelius – Epitome of History
App. BC Appian – Civil Wars
App. Gall. Appian – Gallic Wars
App. Iber Appian – Spanish Wars
App. Illyr Appian – Illyria Wars
App. Lib Appian – Libyan Wars
App. Pun Appian – Punic Wars
Ascon Asconius – Commentaries on Cicero
Athen. Athenaeus – Authorities on Banquets
Aug. Res Gest Augustus – Deeds of the Divine Augustus
Caes. BA Caesar – African War
Caes. BG Caesar – Gallic War
De vir ill De Viris Illustribus (Lives of Famous Men)
Dio Dio Cassius – History of Rome
Diod. Diodorus – Library of History
Eutrop Eutropius – Epitome of Roman History
Exsuper Julius Exsuperantius – Epitome of Roman History
Fest Festus – Lexicon
Fest. Brev Festus – Epitome of Roman History
Flor Florus – Epitome of Roman History
Frontin. Str. Frontinus – Stratagems
Gell. Gellius – The Attic Nights
Gran.Lic Granius Licinianus – Epitome of Roman History
Herodot. Herodotus – Histories
Homer. Homer – Odyssey
Iord. Rom Jordanes – History of Rome
Iustin Justin – Epitome of Pompeius Trogus’ History of the World
Liv. Livy – History of Rome
Liv. Oxy Oxyrhynchus Fragments of Livy
Liv. Per The Periochae of Livy
Lydus. de. mag. Lydus – On Magistrates
Obseq Julius Obsequens – Summary of Livy
Oros. Orosius – Seven Books against the Pagans
Polyb. Polybius – Histories
Plin. NH Pliny – Natural History
Plut. Ant. Plutarch – Life of Marcus Antonius
Plut. CG Plutarch – Life of Caius Gracchus
Plut. Luc Plutarch – Life of Lucullus
Plut. Mar Plutarch – Life of Caius Marius
Plut. Mor Plutarch – Moralia
Plut. Sert Plutarch – Life of Sertorius
Plut. Sull Plutarch – Life of Sulla
Plut. TG Plutarch – Life of Tiberius Gracchus
Sall. Iug Sallust – Jugurthine Wars
Strabo Strabo – Geography
Varr. RR Varro – On Agriculture
Val Max. Valerius Maximus – Memorable Doings and Sayings
Vell. Velleius Paterculus – History of Rome
Vegit. RM Vegetius – Epitome of Military Science
Zon Zonaras – Extracts of History
Cicero – Works
Cic. Brut. Cicero – Brutus
Cic. Fin Cicero – About the Ends of Goods and Evils (De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum)
Cic. Inv Cicero – On Invention (De Inventione)
Cic. Leg Cicero – On Laws (De Legibus)
Cic. ND Cicero – On the Nature of the Gods (De Natura Deorum)
Cic. Rep Cicero – On the Republic (De Republica)
Cicero – Speeches
Cic. Har Resp Cicero – On the Reply of the Soothsayers
Cic. Leg Agr Cicero – On the Agrarian Law of Rullus
Cic. Mil Cicero – In Defence of Milo
Cic. Off. Cicero – On Duties (De Officiis)
Cic. Phil Cicero – Philippics
Cic. Pis Cicero – Against Piso
Cic. Planc Cicero – In Defence of Plancius
Cic. Prov.Con Cicero – On the consular Provinces
Cic. Sest Cicero – In Defence of Sestius
Cicero – Speeches
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
ILLRP Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae Rei Publicae
ILS Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae
Cicero – Speeches
IG Inscriptiones Graecae
IGRR Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes
SIG Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum
Bibliography
Roman Background
Astin, A, Scipio Aemilianus (Oxford, 1967)
Badian, E, Foreign Clientelae (264–70 BC) (Oxford, 1958)
______, ‘From the Gracchi to Sulla’, Historia 11, 1962, 197–245
______, ‘Tiberius Gracchus and the Beginning of the Roman Revolution’,
Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 1.1, 1972, 668–731
Balsdon, J, Romans and Aliens (London, 1979)
Benedict, C, ‘The Romans in Southern Gaul’, American Journal of Philology 63, 1942, 38–50
Bernstein, A, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, Tradition and Apostasy (Ithaca, 1978)
Bispham, E, From Asculum to Actium (Oxford, 2007)
Boren, H, The Gracchi (New York, 1968)
Bradley, K, Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World 140 BC – 70 BC
(Indiana, 1989)
Braund, D, Rome and the Friendly King; the Character of Client Kingship
(London, 1984)
Broughton, T, Magistrates of the Roman Republic Volumes I and II (New York, 1952)
Daly, G, Cannae; The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War (London, 2002)
de Ligt, L, ‘Studies in Legal and Agrarian History IV: Roman Africa in 111 B.C.’, Mnemosyne 54, 2001, 182–217
Dyson, S, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (Princeton, 1985)
Earl, D, Tiberius Gracchus. A Study in Politics (Brussels, 1963)
Evans, R, Questioning Reputations (Pretoria, 2004)
Gargola, D, Lands, Laws & Gods; Magistrates & Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (Chapel Hill, 1995)
_______, ‘The Gracchan Reform and Appian’s Representation of an Agrarian Crisis’, in L. de Ligt & S. Northwood (eds.) People, Land and Politics, Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy 300 BC-AD 14 (Leiden, 2008), 487–518
Harris, W, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327 – 70 B.C. (Oxford, 1979)
Nagle, D, ‘The Failure of the Roman Political Process on 133 B.C.’, Athenaeum 48, 1970, 372–394.
Rich, J, Declaring War in the Roman republic in the period of transmarine expansion (Brussels, 1976)
______, ‘Lex Licinia, Lex Sempronia: B.G Niebuhr and the Limitation of Landholding in the Roman Republic’, in L. de Ligt & S. Northwood (eds.) People, Land and Politics, Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy 300 BC-AD 14 (Leiden, 2008), 519–572
Rich, J. & Shipley, G (eds.), War and Society in the Roman World (London, 1993)
Richardson, J, Hispaniae; Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218–82 BC (Cambridge, 1986)
Rosenstein, N, Imperatores Victi; Military Defeat and Aristocratic Competition in the Middle and Late Republic (Berkeley, 1990)
Sampson G, A Re-examination of the Office of the Tribunate of the Plebs in the Roman Republic (494–23 B.C. (Manchester, 2005, unpublished)
_____, ‘The Rise and Fall of the Roman Historian: The Eighteenth Century in the Roman Historical Tradition’, in J. Moore, I. Macgregor-Morris & A. Bayliss (eds.) Reinventing History. The Enlightenment Origins of Ancient History (London, 2009), 187–218
Sands, P, The Client Princes of the Roman Empire Under the Republic (Cambridge, 1908)
Scochat, Y, Recruitment and the Programme of Tiberius Gracchus (Brussels, 1980)
Seager, R, (ed.), The Crisis of the Roman Republic (Cambridge, 1969)
Sherk, R, (ed.), Rome and the Greek East to the Death of Augustus (Cambridge, 1984)
Stevens, C, ‘North West Europe and Roman Politics (125–118)’, Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History II (Brussels, 1980), 71–97
Stockton, D, The Gracchi (Oxford, 1979)
Syme, R, Rome and the Balkans 80BC-AD14 (Exeter, 1999)
Taylor, L, ‘Forerunners of the Gracchi’, Journal of Roman Studies 52, 1962, 19–27
Van Ooteghem, J, Les Caecilii Metelli de la République (Brussels, 1967)
Williams, J, Beyond the Rubicon, Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy (Oxford, 2001)
Wiseman, T, New Men in the Roman Senate (Oxford, 1971)
______, Remembering the Roman People (Oxford, 2009)
Numidia and the Jugurthine Wars
Allen, W, ‘The Source of Jugurtha’s Influence in the Roman Senate’, Classical Philology 33, 1938, 90–92
Berthier, A, Charlier, R, & Juliet, J, ‘Le Bellum Jugurthinum de Sallusts et le Problème de Cirta’, Recueil des Notices et Memoires de la Société Archéologique Historique et Géographique 67, 1950, 1–144.
Canter, H, ‘The Chronology of Sallust’s Jugurtha’, Classical Journal 6, 1911, 290–295.
Cameron, H., & Parker, V, ‘A Mobile People? Sallust’s Presentation of the Numidians and their Manner of Fighting’, Parola del Passato 15, 1960, 33–57
Classen, J-M, ‘Sallust’s Jugurtha: Revel or Freedom Fighter? On Crossing Crocodile Infested Waters’, Classical World 86, 1993, 273–297
Dijkstra, T., & Parker, V, ‘Through many glasses darkly, Sulla and the End of the Jugurthine War’, Wiener Studien 120, 2007, 137–160
Earl, D, ‘Sallust and the Senate’s Numidian Policy’, Latomus 24, 1965, 532–536
Fentress, E, Numidia and the Roman Army (Oxford, 1979)
______, ‘Romanizing the Berbers’, Past & Present 190, 2006, 3 –33
Fiedler, P, ‘Die beiden überfallschlachten auf Metellus und Marius im Bellum Iugurthinum des Sallust’, Wiener Studien 78, 1965, 108–127
Gilbert, C, ‘Five Passages in Sallust’s “Bellum Jugurthinum”’, Mnemosyne 28, 1975, 67–69
Green, C, ‘De Africa et eius incolis: The Function of Geography and Ethnography in Sallust’s History of the Jugurthine War (BJ 17–19)’, Ancient World 24, 1993, 185–197
Hawthorn, J, Sallust: Rome and Jugurtha (Bristol, 1979)
Hayne, L, ‘The Condemnation of Sp. Postumius Albinus’, Acta Classica 24, 1981, 61–70
Holroyd, M, ‘The Jugurthine War: Was Marius or Metellus the Real Victor?’, Journal of Roman Studies 18, 1928, 1–20
Kahrstedt, U, Geschichte der Karthager, von O. Meltzer III (Berlin, 1913)
Kraus, C, ‘Jugurthine Disorder’, The Limits of Historiography (Leiden, 1999), 217–247
Kurita, N, ‘Who Supported Jugurtha?, The Jugurthine War as a Social Revolution’, in T. Yuge & M. Doi (eds.) Forms of Control and Subordination in Antiquity (Leiden, 1988), 164–168
Lafaye, G, ‘L’adoption de Jugurtha dans Salluste’, in Mélenages Boissier. Recueil de Mémoires concernant La Littérature et les Antiquités Romaines dédié a Gaston Boissier (Paris, 1903), 315–317
Levene, D, ‘Sallust’s Jugurtha: An ‘Historical Fragment’’ Journal of Roman Studies 82, 1992, 53–70
Matthews, V, ‘The Libri Punici of King Hiempsal’, American Journal of Philology 93, 1972, 330–335
Morstein-Marx, R, ‘The Alleged “Massacre” at Cirta and Its Consequences (Sallust Bellum Iugurthinum 26–27)’, Classical Philology 95, 2000, 468–476
______, The Myth of Numidian Origins in Sallust’s Africa
n Excursus (Iugurtha 17.7–18.12), American Journal of Philology 122, 2001, 179–200
Oost, S, ‘The Fetial Law and the Outbreak of the Jugurthine War’, American Journal of Philology 75, 1954, 147–159
Parker, V, ‘Sallust and the Victor of the Jugurthine War’, Tyche 16, 2001, 111–125
Paul, G, A Historical Commentary on Sallust’s Bellum Jugurthinum (Liverpool, 1984)
Pelham, H, ‘The Chronology of the Jugurthine War’, American Journal of Philology 7, 1877, 91–94
Radnorthy-Alfoldi, M, ‘Die Geschichte des Numidischen Konigreches und seiner Nachfolger’, in H. Horn & C. Ruger (eds.) Die Numider (Bonn, 1979), 43–74
Rossetti, S, ‘La Numidia e Cartagine fre la II e la III Guerra Punica’, Parola del Passato 15, 1960, 337–353
Saumagne, C, La Numidie et Rome, Masinissa et Jugurtha (Paris, 1966)
Scanlon, T, ‘Textual Geography in Sallust’s The War with Jugurtha’, Ramus 17, 1988, 138–175
Sumner, G, ‘Scaurus and the Mamilian Inquisition’, Phoenix 1, 1976, 73–75
Shaw, B, ‘Fear and Loathing: The Nomad Menace and Roman Africa’, in C. Wells (ed.), Roman Africa: The Vanier Lectures 1980 (Ottawa, 1982), 29–50
Suerbaum, W, ‘Rex Ficta Locutus est: Zur Beurteilung der Adherbal- und der Micipsa-Rede in Sallusts “Bellum Iugurthimum”, Hermes 92, 1964, 85–106
Summers, W, ‘A Note on Sallust’s Jugurtha’, Classical Review 17, 1903, 32–34
Thompson, L, ‘Carthage and the Massylian “Coup d’Etat” of 206 B.C.’, Historia 30, 1981, 120–126
Von Fritz, K, ‘Sallust and the Attitude of the Roman Nobility at the Time of the Wars against Jugurtha (112–105 B.C.)’, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 74, 1943, 134–168
Vretska, K, Studien zu Sallusts Bellum Jugurthinum (Wien, 1955)
Walsh, P, ‘Massinissa’, Journal of Roman Studies 55, 1965, 149–160
Wiedemann, T, ‘Sallust’s Jugurtha: Concord, Discord and the Digressions’, Greece & Rome 40, 1993, 48–57
The Crisis of Rome Page 31
