by Ann Williams
Because Huangdi had always been prepared for an attempt on his life, he had ordered that no one, not even his own retainers, could enter the throne room carrying any sort of weapon, so consequently he had very little protection. However, the emperor’s personal physician attempted to get between them with his bag of medicine, and this gave the emperor a little more time. In this instant the emperor pulled out his own sword and managed to sever Jing Ke’s left leg. In a last effort to assassinate the emperor, Jing Ke threw his dagger at him, but unfortunately he missed. Hearing the commotion the guards rushed in from outside the throne room and killed both Jing Ke and his accomplice, and consequently their plot to assassinate the emperor of Qin failed.
After this incident the emperor was incensed and drove his forces down to Yan. On reaching its capital the following year, Huangdi forced the Emperor of Yan to have his own son, Prince Dan, put to death and by the year 222 BC, the state of Yan had been completely wiped out by the state of Qin.
The Assassination Of Pompey
At this his behavior Pompey had great indignation; Hyrcanus also and his friends made great intercessions to Pompey; so he took not only his Roman forces, but many of his Syrian auxiliaries, and marched against Aristobulus.
Flavius Josephus
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) was born in 106 BC in the Northern Italian town of Picenum. His father, Pompey Strabo, was an accomplished general, and by the age of 17, Pompey took an active interest in his father’s campaigns and was already building a foundation for his own military career. He proved to have extraordinary valour and a remarkable strength of character, even at such a young age.
Pompey made his first military mark when he was serving Sulla in the first major Roman civil war, against the forces of Marius in Africa. For the speed and success of his commission, Pompey was honoured with the name of Magnus (meaning ‘the Great’), and for one who had never held office this was indeed a great distinction. His next command took him to Spain, where he fought against the brave rebel Sartorious. Although the battle was not a clear-cut victory, because the opposing army only retreated following the murder of Sartorious, Pompey still returned to Rome in triumph.
On his return to Italy Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, who conducted the bulk of the operation, were successful in bringing an end to the Servile War instigated by the slave Spartacus. Pompey was now the idol of his people as well as his army, and he was elected consul in the year 70 BC, serving alongside Crassus. Despite fears of a new military dictatorship Pompey received special powers, even though he was deeply distrusted by the Senatorial class. But seeing a truly capable general who had the power to march on Rome, the Senate tolerated him, albeit reluctantly.
In 67–66 BC, Pompey performed a noble service to the republic by clearing the Mediterranean Sea of pirates, who had overrun the area for many years. In the next four years, 65–62 BC, he conquered Mithridates VI of Pontus, Tigranes the Great, King of Armenia, and Antiochus XIII of Syria. He also subdued the Jewish nation and captured Jerusalem. On his return to Italy he disbanded his army and in 61 BC entered Rome in triumph for the third time. Following a disagreement with the Senate Pompey formed a close alliance with Julius Caesar, and the two men, together with Crassus, formed a coalition commonly called the ‘First Triumvirate’.
Pompey married Caesar’s daughter Julia, which should have created a strong bond between the two men, but the liaisons between them were personal, tenuous and short-lived. The following year Caesar went to Gaul and rose in esteem as a warrior and a statesman. Pompey, meanwhile, spent his time in Rome making no great advances in his career. Jealousies soon came to the surface, as Pompey could not bear to have such a strong rival. When Julia died in 54 BC, one of the main links between Caesar and Pompey broke, and the rift between the two men grew wider. Pompey returned to the comfort of his former friends, the aristocracy. They, like Pompey, had a strong desire to strip Caesar of his command. Caesar was immediately ordered to lay down his office and return to Rome. He agreed to do this provided Pompey would do the same. The Senate insisted on an unconditional resignation, ordering him to immediately disband his army, otherwise he would be declared a public enemy. But Caesar ignored their command and crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, consequently defying the Senate and its armies, both of which were under Pompey’s command.
Pompey withdrew his forces to Brundisium (now Brindisi) and then moved on to Greece. Caesar, in the meantime, made himself master of Italy and defeated a strong army in Spain commanded by Pompey’s legates, and then he crossed the Adriatic to attack Pompey. Pompey, who had managed to gather a strong army, was victorious in the opening encounters, but was finally defeated at Pharsalus in 48 BC. Pompey managed to survive the conflict unscathed and made his escape to Egypt.
Upon his arrival in Egypt, Pompey’s fate was decided by three counsellors of the boy king, Ptolemy XIII. Pompey waited offshore for the king’s decision, but the counsel and Ptolemy argued the cost of offering him refuge due to the fact that Caesar was already en route to Egypt with his army. The decision was made to murder Pompey, so that they could ingratiate themselves with Caesar.
On his 58th birthday, September 29, Pompey was enticed to come to the shore to meet a supposed audience. Among the welcoming party Pompey spotted two of his old comrades-in-arms from his earlier, glorious battles. What he didn’t know was these two men were to be his assassins.
While Pompey rested in his small boat, preparing a speech he had made for the boy king, the two men stabbed him in the back with a sword and a dagger. His naked body was decapitated and left unceremoniously on the shore. His friend, Philipus, arranged a simple funeral pyre and cremated Pompey’s body on a pile of broken ship’s timbers.
When Caesar arrived a few days later, he was presented Pompey’s head and ring in a basket as a welcoming present. But rather than being pleased with his gift, Caesar was angry that his former ally and son-in-law had been murdered by traitors. When offered the head, Caesar simply turned his head in disgust, and on being given Pompey’s signet ring, which was engraved with a lion holding a sword, he burst into tears.
Out of revenge he deposed Ptolemy, executed his regent Pothinus and then elevated Cleopatra to the throne of Egypt. Caesar gave Pompey’s ashes and ring to Cornelia, who took them back to his estates in Italy. At Caesar’s request, Pompey was later deified by the Senate in the year 45 BC.
The Assassination Of Julius Caesar
If you must break the law, do it to seize power: in all other cases observe it.
Julius Caesar
Using his position as a general and a politician of the late Roman republic, Gaius Julius Caesar managed to extend the Roman Empire quite extensively. In January of 49 BC, Julius Caesar led his army across the Rubicon river in Northern Italy and thereby plunged the Roman Republic into civil war. Within three months Caesar had taken control of the entire Italian peninsula, and in Spain he had defeated the legions who were loyal to Pompey.
Caesar pursued Pompey to Greece and soon crushed the forces of his enemy, although Pompey managed to escape to Egypt unharmed. Again Caesar followed him and was rewarded by being presented his rival’s head on a platter as a token of friendship. Before he left Egypt he appointed Cleopatra as his surrogate ruler of the region. His remaining rivals in North Africa were defeated in
47 BC, and Caesar returned to Rome with his authority now firmly established.
Caesar continued to consolidate his power and proclaimed himself the dictator of Rome in 44 BC. This undermined the power of the Republic and also paved the way for a system of monarchy that was headed by emperors.
The position of dictator had always been a temporary position, but in 44 BC Caesar took the title for life. He used this extra power to carry out much-needed reform, relieving debt, making the senate larger, building the Forum Iulium and also revising the calendar. But along the way he made enemies – many of them republicans who had been spared – who despised his new-found dictatorial powers. Led by
Brutus and Cassius, a diverse group of conspirators formed against him and started to plot his demise. Sixty members of the newly formed Senate quickly decided that the only way to resolve their grievances was to assassinate Caesar.
The members of the Senate met in secret at each other’s houses to discuss various proposals of how to execute their plan. Suggestions were put forward that they should wait until he was on his favourite walk along the Sacred Way, or alternatively they should wait until the elections when he had to cross a bridge, from which he could be pushed. Another plan was to wait for a gladiator display, where there would be no suspicion aroused if people were seen to be carrying arms. The majority opinion, however, was to kill him while he sat in the Senate. As non-Senate members were not permitted, it meant that Caesar would be without allies at the next sitting, and it would also be easy for his conspirators to hide their daggers beneath their loose, flowing togas. Finally, this was the plan that they all agreed on.
Alarmed by rumours that had been going round about Caesar, his friends tried to talk him out of going to the Senate house. His doctor also advised against him going, due to the fact that he was suffering from a spell of dizziness, which Caesar was prone to from time to time. Another reason for Caesar not to attend, was the fact that his faithful wife, Calpurnia, had been frightened by a vivid dream in which her beloved husband had been killed. So determined was she to stop him, that she physically clung to his leg and begged him not to leave the house. However, his so-called friend Brutus, one of the main conspirators, asked him if he was the sort of ruler who would pay attention to the meaningless visions of a woman or listen to the gossip of stupid men. He said to Caesar that it would be an insult to the Senate if he were not to attend, and he told his friend that the Senate had been in session waiting for their ruler since early that morning. The words of an old friend (or so he presumed), persuaded Caesar and he left.
BAD OMENS
Before Caesar entered the Senate chamber, his priests brought up the victims for him to make what would turn out to be his very last sacrifice. However, the omens were very clearly not in his favour. After repeated unsuccessful sacrifices, the priests told Caesar that they could not see the divine intent as there was some evil spirit hidden within the sacrificial victims. Caesar was annoyed at their proclamation and informed them that he would abandon divination until sunset.
The conspirators that were present were delighted with this turn of events, although Caesar’s friends convinced him to put off the meeting of the Senate until the following day due to the unhappy circumstances. Caesar agreed to this, but as he turned to leave some attendants ran up to him begging him to come to the Senate as it was already full. Brutus approached his friend and said, ‘Come, good sir, pay no attention to the babblings of these men, and do not postpone what Caesar and his mighty power has seen fit to arrange. Make your own courage your favourable omen.’ Caesar was convinced by these words and followed Brutus, in silence, into the Senate.
The Senate rose in reverence for his position when they saw Caesar enter. Those who were actually involved in the plot to kill Caesar made sure that they stood close to their victim. Tillius Climber, whose brother had been exiled by Caesar, stood directly next to him and, under the pretext of a simple request from his brother, approached the ruler. Cimber grabbed the front of Caesar’s toga and held him tight, which annoyed the dictator.
The conspirators took advantage of the situation and made their move. They quickly removed their daggers from their sheaths and all dashed angrily at Caesar. The first man to strike him with the point of his dagger was Servilius Casca, who sunk the blade deep into Caesar’s left shoulder just above the collar-bone. Caesar stood up and tried to defend himself against his attackers, but Casca shouted out to his brother in Greek, who then came forward and drove his dagger deep into his ribs. Cassius followed this with a slash to his face, while Decimus Brutus pierced his side. Each one made a bid to make their mark on Caesar – determined that it should be their wound that finally killed him.
Caesar, gasping for breath from his many wounds, fell at the foot of Pompey’s statue. Each Senate member seemed to want to have a part in the downfall of the dictator, and as he lay under the statue there was not one member who did not strike his body. Eventually, wounded 35 times, Caesar took his last breath.
His death took place on the March 15 (the Ides of March) between 11.00 a.m. and 12.00 p.m., 44 BC. The assassination of Caesar sparked off yet another 14 years of civil war before his great-nephew and heir, Octavian, managed to establish a permanent monarchy in a more acceptable form.
The Zealots
To attempt the destruction of our passions is the height of folly. What a noble aim is that of the zealot who tortures himself like a madman in order to desire nothing, love nothing, feel nothing, and who, if he succeeded, would end up a complete monster!
Denis Diderot
The Zealots are a Jewish faction who can be traced back to the revolt of the Maccabees in the 2nd century BC. The term ‘Zealot’, in Hebrew kanai, means one who is jealous on behalf of God. The Zealots were organized into a party during the reign of Herod the Great (37–4 BC), whose idolatrous practices the group resisted, and who bitterly opposed Roman rule and taxation. They were also known as the Sicarii after the name of the daggers (sicae) that they carried hidden underneath their cloaks. The term Zealot technically applies to a person who belonged to a Jewish sect who resisted any Roman authority and other Jews that collaborated with Rome. For many generations the Zealots resisted the Emperor’s authority by means of violence. Their dream would be to have an all-powerful messiah who would lead their great holy army, destroy the Roman overlords and re-establish Jewish rule into Israel.
THEIR BELIEFS
The beliefs of the Zealot movement were quite simple and were broken down into four simple rules:
1. God alone was to be served.
2. God alone was their ruler, neither Rome nor Herod were legitimate authorities.
3. Taxes were to be paid only to God.
4. All foreign rule over the Jews was unscriptural. Serving Rome, whether in worship, slavery, or paying taxes, was a sin against God.
The Zealots believed that no matter what forces they used to support their beliefs, God would always be on their side, and they would triumph in the end. This strong belief led to their reputation for incredible bravery and tolerance towards suffering.
THE SICARII AND HEROD
The Sicarii, the dagger bearers of the Zealots, were a band of violent nationalists who were prepared to undertake assassination and murder in a campaign to set Palestine free. Bands of Zealots and Sicarii were formed in protest against this misrule, and their members pledged to kill any disloyal Jew. They worked swiftly by mingling in street gatherings, stabbing their appointed victims from behind, and disappearing in the chaos of the resultant crowd. The Zealots first used violence for the sake of punishing the crimes of idolatry and bloodshed that had been committed by Herod. It was the introduction of Roman institutions such as the gymnasium, the arena, and above all, the trophies or images to which homage was to be paid, that truly incensed the Zealots.
Ten citizens of Jerusalem banded together and swore vengeance against Herod. Concealing daggers under their robes, the ten men entered the theatre where Herod was supposed to be, with one thought in their head: to slay the enemy. However, Herod had many followers who kept vigil and was consequently informed of the conspirators plan to kill him, so he managed to escape. The conspirators were not so lucky, however, and they were tortured to death, glorifying in their martyrdom. Followers of the Zealots sympathized with them, hunted down the spy who had reported the plan to Herod, and literally tore him to pieces.
Later, towards the end of Herod’s life, he once again angered the Zealots by placing a large golden eagle over the great gate of the Temple. Two Zealot masters, Judah ben Sarifai and Mattathias ben Margalot, ordered their disciples to sacrifice their own lives rather than allow this violation of
their beliefs. The two masters, with the help of 40 other young men, used all their strength to pull down the golden eagle. Herod was so incensed by their actions that he ordered that they all be burnt to death.
JUDAS, ZEALOT LEADER
Despite Herod’s efforts to quash the Zealot movement, their spirit could not be crushed. Following his death, the Romans appointed a series of governors called procurators, each one apparently more cruel and corrupt than the previous leader. People cried out for revenge and would not settle until the matter was resolved.
There were several robber bands in Judea, all of whom wanted to appoint one of their members as king. Judas, the son of Hezekiah (a robber-captain), took matters into his own hands and organized his forces for a revolt against the dynasty of Herod. Judas’s teachings and his zeal influenced his followers, who were basically fanatics, waging war on all who opposed them. They exhibited extreme bravery, enduring sieges and torture rather than call anyone ‘lord’ other than God. And so it was under the leadership of Judas and his family that the Zealots became an aggressive and relentless political party.
There were groups of rebel Zealots and Sicarii everywhere, killing Romans and any Jews who co-operated with them. The priesthood became more dependent upon the Romans for their support and safety, and in so doing became more and more corrupt. The Zealots’s popularity grew day by day, driving the common people towards their radical approach. It was quite apparent that the Roman administration was in a state of disorder, while the Zealots and Sicarii flourished. The people knew that the time was right for a revolt to free them from the political oppression they had suffered for too long.
