12. Crispolti and Aureli 1912, pp. 419–25, Rampolla to Galimberti, 14 marzo 1888. In January 1888, the German government had signed a supplementary military defense pact with the Italians aimed specifically against France, which was further angering both the French and the Vatican at the time (Giordano 1994, p. 84). The renewal of the Triple Alliance had been signed in February of the previous year (for text, see Anchieri 1959).
13. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1083, fasc. 355, ff. 48P–55V, Galimberti a Rampolla, Berlino, 26 marzo 1888.
14. Trincia 2001, p. 122. On Bismarck's belief that war was likely, see Pflanze 1990b, pp. 309–12.
15. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1091, fasc. 358, ff. 26r–28v, Rampolla a Galimberti, 19 giugno 1888.
16. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1091, fasc. 358, ff.31r–34r, Galimberti a Rampolla, 10 luglio 1888.
17. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1091, fasc. 358, ff. 37r–40r, Galimberti a Rampolla, 21 luglio 1888.
18. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1083, fasc. 355, ff. 98r–101r, Roteili a Rampolla, 12 luglio 1888. The French government's response should also be seen in light of the Boulanger crisis then in course, with many predicting that civil war could break out at any time between the monarchist and clerical forces supporting General Boulanger arrayed against the republican government and its supporters (Langer 1956, pp. 461–63).
19. Civiltà Cattolica, 1888, IV, pp. 226–27, Cronaca contemporanea.
20. DDI, series 2, vol. 22, n. 153, Il Presidente del Consiglio e Ministro degli Esteri ad Interim, Crispí, all'Ambasciatore a Vienna, Nigra, 15 luglio 1888; n. 154, Il Presidente del Consiglio e Ministro degli Esteri ad Interim, Crispi, all'Ambasciatore a Berlino, De Launay, 15 luglio 1888.
21. "L'arrivo in Roma e ricevimento al Quirinale di Guglielmo II," Unità Cattolica, 13 ottobre 1888, pp. 957–59; Civiltà Cattolica 1888, IV, pp. 367–68, Cronaca contemporanea.
22. Soderini 1933, p. 399; Crispolti and Aureli 1912, pp. 265–71; Civiltà Cattolica 1888 IV, pp. 488–89, Cronaca contemporanea.
23. "I brindisi di Re Umberto e di Guglielmo II," L'Unità Cattolica, 14 ottobre 1888, p. 963.
24. Quoted in Trincia 2001, pp. 128–29,
25. "Rampolla," the Austrian ambassador to the Holy See wrote Kalnóky in January, 1888, "prophesizes a storm, and in particular a storm that destroys the Kingdom of Italy and the Triple Alliance." Quoted in Trincia 2001, p. 132.
26. Letter to Bonghi, in Maturi 1942, vol. 1, p. xxix.
19. Giordano Bruno's Revenge
1. Foa 1998; Parinetto 1999; Ricci 2000.
2. Manzi 1963; Comitato Universitario 1889.
3. "Either we can no longer make any sense of anything," the author of a typical letter in the Catholic press argued, "or the punishment inflicted on Torlonia is in open contradiction with both the law and good sense." The writer cited the text of an article of the law of guarantees: "The Italian government renders the Holy Pontiff, in the territory of the Kingdom, sovereign honors, and accords him the high honors that Catholic Sovereigns assign him." It follows, the writer concluded, "that Torlonia acted in full conformity with the laws." The Unità Cattolica pieces cited here are from "La storia della visita del duca Torlonia al Cardinale Parecchi," 5 gennaio 1888, pp. 13–15; "Il sindaco di Roma fulminato," 12 gennaio 1888, pp. 33–34; and "Le destituzioni in odio al Papa e parallelo tra Robespierre e Crispi," 20 gennaio 1888, p. 61. A discussion of the political context of the incident can be found in Ciampini 2000, pp. 449–54; and Bartoccini 1985, pp. 726–27. For Rampolla, Torlonia's firing simply made clear to the world what he had long known, that the new prime minister was but an old anticlerical revolutionary disguised in the clothes of the establishment. In late July 1888, writing to Galimberti, the secretary of state laid out these views. "The official war on the papacy in Italy and especially in Rome is now not only openly declared, but being pushed on with increasing speed." While the government was trying to maintain a public appearance of moderation, wrote Rampolla, it had in reality adopted a revolutionary program. "The prime minister, a product of the revolution, accustomed to conspiracies and notoriously involved in the network of sects, maintains direct relationships and friendships with the most subversive and dissolute elements of society while distinguishing himself by his implacable hatred of the Head of the Church and by the audacity of his perverse designs" (AAEESS, SE, pos. 1091, fasc. 358, ff. 43r–48r, Rampolla a Galimberti, 31 luglio 1888). For an account of the discussion of the Catholic council members that lay behind the visit, see Campello (1910, p. 149).
4. Ugolini 1989.
5. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 3, ff. 13V–15V, circolare, 4 marzo 1888.
6. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1075, fasc. 347, ff. 72r–73r, nunzio, Paris, a Rampolla, 18 marzo 1888.
7. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 3, ff. 27v–29r, Arcivescovo di Spoleto a Rampolla, 16 aprile 1888.
8. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 3, Il Diritto, supplemento straordinario al n. 160, Roma, 9 giugno 1889, p. 4.
9. This account is based on "Spoleto a Giordano Bruno," La Nuova Umbria, 3 giugno 1888, which was sent by the archbishop of Spoleto to Rampolla along with one of his reports and can be found in ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 3, following f–43.
10. Jemolo 1965, p. 81; Bartoccini 1985, p. 630; Duggan 2000, pp. 657–58; Ciampani 2000, p. 456; Ticchi 2001.
11. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1075, fasc. 347, ff. 88r–92r, Relazione; Civiltà Cattolica 1888, III, pp. 106–9, Cronaca contemporanea.
12. Comitato Universitario 1889.
13. "A Bruno, il secolo da lui divinato, qui dove il rogo arse."
14. Among the sources used in this account of events on June 9,1889, are AAEESS, SE, pos. 1107, fasc. 361, ff. 86r–90v, Relazione dell'accaduto in Roma all'inaugurazione del monumento a Giordano Bruno; Manzi 1963; MAEI, vol. 87, ff. 274r–276v, Mariani à Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Paris, 10 juin 1889; Il Diritto, supplemento straordinario al n. 160, Roma, 9 giugno 1889; "La cronaca per le feste di Giordano Bruno," L'Osservatore Romano, 11 giugno 1889, pp. 2–3.
15. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 1, f. 18ov, Atto di protesta, Ferrara.
16. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 9r–9v, Béhaine à Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Paris, 2 juin 1889; f. 15r, Béhaine à Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Paris, 5 juin 1889; f. 21r, Béhaine à Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Paris, 9 juin 1889.
17. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 3, ff. 146v–146r, 11 giugno 1889, Circolare.
18. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 3, f. 118v, 8 giugno 1889.
19. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 4, ff. 93v–95r, nunzio Bavaria a Rampolla, 16 giugno 1889.
20. "Considerzioni sull'alleanza fra Germania ed Italia," Vienna 9 giugno 1889, attached to Galimberti a Boccali, 9 giugno 1889; documents 43–44, Trincia 2001, pp. 203–9.
21. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 4, ff. 101V–102V, nunzio Parigi a Rampolla, 18 giugno 1889; f. 103V, Rampolla al nunzio, Parigi, 22 giugno 1889.
22. ASV, SS, EM, a. 1889, r. 241, fasc. 4, ff. 129V–130V, nunzio Aja a Rampolla, 15 giugno 1889.
23. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1107, fasc. 361, ff. 91r–93r, Allocuzione del'S. P. Leone XIII tenuta nel Concistoro del 30 giugno 1889. The full Italian text was also published in L'Osservatore Romano, 3 luglio 1889, p. 1.
24. Civiltà Cattolica, 1889, II, p. 744, Cronaca contemporanea.
20. The Pope's Secret Plan
1. Rampolla a Galimberti, 1 dicembre 1888, document 37 in Trincia 2001, pp. 196–97; Galimberti a Rampolla, 6 dicembre 1888, document 39, in Trincia 2001, pp. 198–99.
2. The report read in part: "and in the Prelature itself the damage caused by modern tendencies is great. Liberal ideas have for many years now been cleverly introduced; because they have not been fought clearly or vigorously, they have entered many minds and are becoming ever more influential. Even among the bishops many are attracted to these new developments."
3. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1093, fasc. 359, ff. 2r–26v, Verbali e appunti di alcune Sedute tenutesi dalla Commissione speciale nei gi
orni 6,9,16,23, e 30 dicembre 1888, scritti dal Card. Palloni.
4. AAEESS, SE, pos. 1108, fasc. 362, Roma 1889; Carte relative ai diversi provvedimenti da prendersi nel caso di forzato allontanamento di'S. P. Leone XIII da Roma, in vista della condizione politica dell'Italia, contraria alla Santa Sede; Istruzione pei Cardinali Prefetti delle'S. Congregazioni e pei Capi degli altri Dicasteri ecclesiastici della Romana Curia.
5. Istruzioni pel sacro Collegio. The pope also made provisions for a conclave to be held should he die while in exile in a secret motu proprio he signed on May 30,1889 (Disposizioni relative al futuro Conclave, Leo PP. XIII, Motu proprio, 30 maggio 1889), followed by further instructions for cardinals heading congregations, specifying how their offices should be run in Rome after the departure of the pope and all the cardinals (Istruzioni per le Segreterie delle SS. Congregazioni ed altri Uffici ecclesiastici della Romana Curia).
6. Mack Smith 1989, pp. 90-91; Galimberti a Leone XIII, 18 novembre 1887: documento n. 9, Trincia 2001, p. 156.
7. DDI, series 2, vol. 22, n. 603, Appunto del Presidente del Consiglio e Ministro degli Esteri ad Interim, Crispi, 15 giugno 1889; n. 608, Crispi all'Ambasciatore a Parigi, Menabrea, 19 giugno 1889; n. 609, Crispi a Menabrea, 19 giugno 1889.
8. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 97r–100v, Monbel à M. Spuller, 25 juin 1889.
9. Civiltà Cattolica, 1889, II, pp. 235–36, Cronaca Contemporanea; Ticchi 2001, p. 394.
10. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 148r–148v, Monbel à Spuller, 6 juillet 1889.
11. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 149r–153r, Monbel à Spuller, 7 juillet 1889; ff. 167r–168v, Monbel à Spuller, 10 juillet 1889.
12. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 154r–157r, Monbel à Spuller, 8 juillet 1889.
13. Reported in Duggan 2000, p. 678.
14. Duggan 2000, p. 679.
15. DDI, series 2, vol. 22, n. 633, Crispi agli ambasciatori a Berlino, De Launay, e a Vienna, Nigra, e all'incaricato d'affari a Londra, Catalani, 18 luglio 1889; n. 634, Nigra a Crispi, 18 luglio 1889.
16. Crispi 1912b, pp. 393–99.
17. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 189r–193r, Monbel à Spuller, 18 juillet 1889, Départ du Pape. The stress is in the original text.
18. All these quotations come from Raffaele Ballerini, "Nell'anniversario della breccia della Porta Pia," Civiltà Cattolica 1889, III, pp. 641–54.
19. Duggan 2000, p. 680; Hill 2000, pp. 199–200.
20. Crispi 1912b, 400–4; Duggan 2000, p. 680.
21. DDI, series 2, vol. 22, n. 636, L'Incaricato d'affari a Londra, Catalani a ... Crispi, 21 luglio 1889; n. 641, L'ambasciatore a Berlino, De Launay, a ... Crispi, 21 luglio 1889.
22. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 220r–221v, Monbel à Spuller, 23 juillet 1889.
23. DDI, series 2, vol. 22, n. 651, De Launay a Crispi, 25 luglio 1889; n. 652, Crispi a De Launay, 25 luglio 1889.
24. DDI, series 2, vol. 22, n. 656, L'ambasciatore a Vienna, Nigra, a Crispi, 28 luglio 1889; MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 241r–242r, Monbel à Spuller, 26 juillet 1889.
25. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 245r–250r, Monbel à Spuller, 28 juillet 1889.
26. MAES, CP, vol. 1096, ff. 275r–278r, Monbel à Spuller, 31 juillet 1889.
27. Ticchi 2001, p. 395.
28. MAES, CP, vol. 1097, ff. 32r–36v, Monbel à Spuller, 10 août 1889. Meanwhile, L'Osservatore Romano ("Sulla partenza del Papa," 1 agosto 1889, p. 1) was reporting that "the possibility that the Pope will abandon Rome is at the top of all of the [government's] other worries." It went on to say: "a huge number of foreign newspapers, and certainly not clerical or even favorably disposed to the Church, have been forced to admit that the moment may well arise when the behavior and the very position of the Italian government is such as not to permit the Pope to remain in Rome."
Near the end of the month, Rampolla wrote a rather stern letter to Galimberti in Vienna, saying that the pope was very upset at credible reports he had been receiving that Germany, acting on behalf of Italy, was doing everything possible to convince the Spanish throne not to allow the pope to escape there, and had also succeeded in getting the Spanish government to prevent numerous public demonstrations of Spain's Catholic population aimed at begging the pope to take refuge there. Two weeks later Galimberti wrote back, saying that Rampolla's allegations were groundless, although admitting that the Germans were not eager to see the pope leave Rome (Rampolla a Galimberti, 26 agosto 1889; Galimberti a Rampolla, 10 settembre 1889, Trincia 2001, documents 45, 47, pp. 209–10, 214–15).
29. MAES, CP, vol. 1097, ff. 83r–87v, Monbel à Spuller, 23 août 1889. To another colleague Parocchi later said: "I am the only official link between the Holy See and Italy, for I have administrative functions in Rome recognized by the government, and yet they allow me to be publicly insulted. What would the Sovereign Pontiff do in a similar case if it happened that his Representative abroad was the object of such attacks in the country where he served? He would immediately be recalled, and relations would be broken. We will be forced to arrive at the same solution here, because my situation vis-à-vis official Rome is comparable to that of a papal nuncio in another country" (MAES, CP, vol. 1097, ff. 55r–58v, Monbel à Spuller, 18 août 1889).
30. Duggan 2000, pp. 693–94. The Catholic press also found a way of highlighting the fact that Emilio Caporali, the twenty-one-year-old man who tried to kill Crispi, came from the southern Italian district represented by Giovanni Bovio, the featured speaker at the recent events commemorating Bruno. A bricklayer studying to become an architect, Caporali had become enamored with republicanism, although no evidence was ever found linking him to any republican organization. For examples of the Catholic press coverage of the assassination attempt, see "Il prete nell'attentato contro F. Crispi," L'Unità Cattolica, 17 settembre 1889, pp. 869–71; and "I complici di Emilio Caporali," L'Unità Cattolica, 18 settembre 1889, p. 873.
Epilogue: Italy and the Pope
1. Aubert 1972, p. 6; Martina 1971, pp. 343–44, 371.
2. Taken from La Tribuna, quoted in Lecanuet 1910, p. 475.
3. Ibid., p. 476.
4. Billot 1905, pp. 368–77.
5. Duggan 2000, pp. 799–802. Soderini (1933, vol. 2, p. 127), Leo XIII's official biographer, who knew him well, writes that while he had no illusions of being able to re-claim all of the Papal States, the granting of "only the Leonine city, with or without a strip of land to the sea, did not seem sufficient to him."
6. Farini 1961, p. 437,7 marzo 1894.
7. Farini 1961, pp. 626–27,3 febbraio 1895; P- 635,10 febbraio 1895.
8. Crispi 1895.
9. Farini 1961, pp. 765–66, 10 settembre 1895; pp. 775–76, 20 settembre 1895; Mack Smith 1989, p. 115.
10. Martina 1986; Martina 2000, p. 1092. According to Martina, there is no evidence that Leo XIII's letter to the cardinals was ever actually read at the conclave. Martina speculates that Rampolla may have thought better of it.
11. Valenti 1977, p. 41n97.
12. Monsignor Manlio Asta, "Non tagliare le radici più profonde," II Messaggero, 21 settembre 2002, pp. 1, 5.
13. Biffi 1999, pp. 17, 23–26, 44, 60. Some Catholic historians have joined in this recent execration of the Risorgimento (e.g., Pellicari 2000).
* * *
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