by Jack Beatty
NOTES FOR CHAPTER 9
1 For Belgium’s ordeal, see John Horne and Alan Kramer, German Atrocities: A History of Denial (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001). For American reaction, see Arthur S. Link, Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), 14–15.
2 George H. Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian 1914–1917 (New York: Norton, 1988), 96.
3 Ibid., 140, 148.
4 For “slippery road,” see ibid., 14.
5 For eating sand, see Margaret Macmillan, Paris 1919 (New York: Random House, 2003), 60. Jack Beatty, The World According to Peter Drucker (New York: Free Press, 1998), 5.
6 The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover (New York: Macmillan, 1951–52), 144.
7 For Bethmann and Belgium, see Alan Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 42. For Shaler, see Eugene Lyons, Will Irwin’s Story (New York: Human Events), 142–53.
8 For “beg, borrow,” see Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover, 83.
9 For “trouble,” see The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, 154; for “fixity of opinion,” see 164; for Churchill, see 162.
10 Asquith, see Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover, 70–71.
11 Ibid. For “surest way,” see G. Paul Vincent, The Politics of Hunger: The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1915–1919 (Athens: University of Ohio Press, 1985), 38. This incident is not mentioned by Will Irwin in his Herbert Hoover: A Reminiscent Biography (New York: Century, 1928), perhaps because he feared it might harm Hoover during that year’s presidential campaign. Alternatively, Brand Whitlock, a novelist before turning diplomat, may have elaborated the scene beyond what Hoover would recognize as the truth.
12 London Times, December 19, 1914. The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, 159.
13 For “mark of Cain,” see Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover, 77.
14 For “wept,” see ibid., 62. For “cracker,” see The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, 176. For American food, “kind,” and “parade,” see ibid., 94–96
15 For Chevrillion, see the London Times, December 4, 1914.
16 For German artillery joke above, see Mark Hewitson, “Images of the Enemy: German Depictions of the French Military, 1890–1914,” War in History 11, no. 1 (2004), 18.
17 New York Times, December 17, 1914.
18 For Poincaré, see John F. V. Keiger, “Poincaré, Clemenceau, and Total Victory,” in Roger Chickering and Stig Forster, eds., Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914–1918 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 255–58. Kölnische Zeitung, April 16, 1915. For Henriette, Izvolski, Rome, and Paris, see Rudolph Binion, Defeated Leaders: The Political Fate of Caillaux, Jouvenal, and Tardieu (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), 77–79.
19 For Poincaré, see The Memoirs of Raymond Poincaré (London: Heineman, 1929), 17. Binion, Defeated Leaders, 80–81.
20 Binion, Defeated Leaders, 81–89. Details on 1917 developments taken from D. L. L. Parry, “Clemenceau, Caillaux and the Political Uses of Intelligence,” Intelligence and National Security 9, no. 3 (July 1994), 473–93. For background of the mutinies, see Leonard V. Smith, “The Disciplinary Dilemma of French Military Justice, September 1914–April 1917: The Case of the 5e Division d’Infantrie,” Journal of Military History 55, no. 1 (January 1991): 47–68.
21 Parry, “Clemenceau, Caillaux and the Political Uses of Intelligence.”
22 Ibid.
23 Binion, Defeated Leaders, 81–89.
24 Chicago Tribune, December 23, 1914. For casualties see Jean-Jacques Becker, The Great War and the French People (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986), 47. Millerand, see John F. V. Keiger, Raymond Poincaré (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 212.
25 Seen in Robert A. Doughty, Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005), 1–2.
26 For veteran, Second-Lieutenant Raymond Jubert, see Alistair Horne, The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916 (New York: Penguin Press, 1962), 326. For Verdun in 1940, see 344. For 1918 and 1940, see Becker, The Great War and the French People, 327: “The unbowed France of 1918 heralded the humbled France of 1940.” Also: “Verdun … broke the French army, or at any rate strained it to such a degree that the country never recovered: France’s last moment as a Great Power. When she did fall in 1940, this was partly because her people did not want to go through Verdun again.” Norman Stone, World War One: A Short History (New York: Basic Books, 2009), 96–97.
27 For “His Majesty’s feet,” see the New York Times, December 3, 1914. For Churchill and “casualties,” see Holger H. Herwig, The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary (London: Arnold, 1997), 111–12, 120.
28 For anecdote, see the Chicago Tribune, January 2, 1915. The 1914 casualties are taken from Mark Cornwall, ed., The Last Years of Austria-Hungary: Essays in Political and Military History, 1908–1918 (Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1990), 109.
29 For Serb foreign minister, see John Garland, “The Strength of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1914,” part 1, New Perspective 3, no. 1 (September 1997): 1.
30 Francis Joseph quotation from George V. Strong, “The Austrian Idea: An Idea of Nationhood in the Kingdom and Realms of the Emperor Franz Joseph,” History of European Ideas 5, no. 3 (1984): 301.
31 For half past three, see Jean-Paul Bled, Franz Joseph (Cambridge, UK: Blackwell, 1992), 322. Hundreds of thousands lined the Ringstrasse to view the funeral procession, but according to Joseph Redlich, a witness and Franz Joseph biographer, “genuine popular sorrow was not called out in Vienna by the death of Francis Joseph: Frightful losses in the war, which still raged, suffering and the permanent underfeeding of millions in the capital had produced a sort of apathy there.” Seen in Maureen Healy, Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 295.
32 New York Times, December 18, 1914.
33 Lincoln, see James M. McPherson, Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief (New York: Penguin, 2008). For the kaiser’s 1914 dinner, see Gordon A. Craig, Germany 1866–1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 367. For “spit of land,” see John C. G. Röhl, The Kaiser and His Court: Wilhelm II and the Government of Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 14. Röhl writes: “That Wilhelm II was little more than a ‘shadow Kaiser’ during the First World War is not in dispute.”
34 A formulation credited to a “contemporary of Frederick the Great” and originally applying to Prussia. See Leonard V. Smith, From Mutiny to Obedience: The Case of the French Fifth Infantry Division During World War I (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 250. For the program of the High Command, which aimed at “a complete militarization of society,” see Hans-Ulrich Wehler, The German Empire 1871–1918 (New York: Berg, 1985), 206–07.
35 For “50,000 tons,” see Peter Loewenberg, “The Psychohistorical Origins of the Nazi Youth Cohort,” American Historical Review 76, no. 5 (December 1971): 1468. For figures on imports, see William Van der Kloot, “Ernest Starling’s Analysis of the Energy Balance of the German People During the Blockade, 1914–1919,” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 57, no. 2 (May 2003): 187.
36 Van der Kloot, “Ernest Starling’s Analysis,” 187, 88. For “farms in Baden,” see Richard Bessel, Germany After the Great War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 15. For “chronic starvation,” the words of the Royal Statistical Society report, see Van der Kloot, “Ernest Starling’s Analysis,” 188.
37 For “rickets” and “wasting tissue,” see Vincent, The Politics of Hunger, 139, 143. For “tuberculosis,” see Bessel, Germany After the Great War, 39.
38 For “Vera Brittain,” see Alan Bishop and Mark Bostridge, eds., Letters from a Lost Generation: The First World War Letters of Vera Brittain (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998), 211–12. For “excess deaths,” see Christopher Birrer, “A
Critical Analysis of the Allied Blockade of Germany, 1914–1918,” Journal of the Centre for First World War Studies (2004): 49. For “births fell by half,” see Elizabeth H. Tobin, “War and the Working Class: The Case of Düsseldorf 1914–1918,” Central European History 28, no. 3–4 (1985).
39 For quotations illustrating the “spirit of 1914,” see Jeffrey Verhey, The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth and Mobilization in Germany (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 5.
40 Excerpt from Glasser’s novel, seen in Vincent, The Politics of Hunger, 21–22.
41 For “Ludendorff,” desertions, and the army’s medical service, see Richard Bessel, “The Great War in German Memory: The Soldiers of the First World War, Demobilization, and Weimar Political Culture,” German History 6, no. 1 (April 1988): 24–55. For “anxious to return,” see Belinda J. Davis, Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 221.
42 For “Statistical Society,” see Van Der Kloot, “Ernest Starling’s Analysis,” 119. For “Huns of 1940,” see Vincent, The Politics of Hunger, 67.
43 For Keynes on Hoover, John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (London: Macmillan, 1919), 174. For “huge rickety heads,” see Vincent, The Politics of Hunger, 81. For scene with Lloyd George, see John Maynard Keynes, Essays in Biography (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 419–22. Also see Margaret Macmillan, Paris 1919 (New York: Random House, 2003), 160. For post-Armistice blockade, see Peter Loewenberg, “The Psychohistorical Origins of the Nazi Youth Cohort,” American Historical Review 76, no. 5 (December 1971): 1473–74.
44 For “hammer,” see Tobin, “War and the Working Class,” 72. For elections, see Loewenberg, “Psychohistorical Origins,” 1470.
45 Loewenberg, “Psychohistorical Origins,” 1498–99, 1477.
46 Ibid., 1457–1502, last quotation is from 1502.
NOTES FOR AN INJURY TO CIVILIZATION
1 Fritz Fischer, Germany’s Aims in the First World War (New York: Norton, 1967), 118–19. For “secretly,” see David F. Trask, “Military Imagination in the United States, 1815–1917,” in Manfred F. Boemeke, Roger Chickering, and Stig Förster, eds., Anticipating Total War: The German and American Experiences, 1871–1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 360. For the background to the mediation offer, see Arthur S. Link, Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), 196–200.
2 Fischer, Germany’s Aims, 103–05, 108. For “Mitteleuropa,” see Konrad H. Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor: Bethmann Hollweg and the Hubris of Imperial Germany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), 209. For premature medal, see Annika Mombauer, “The Battle of the Marne: Myths and Reality of Germany’s ‘Fateful Battle,’ ” Historian 68, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 750. For the debate over the significance of the “September Program,” see Gordon A. Craig, Germany 1866–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 365, n. 69.
3 See Roy A. Prete, “French Military War Aims, 1914–1916,” Historical Journal 4, no. 28 (December 1985): 888–89.
4 Fischer, Germany’s Aims, 108.
5 For Falkenhayn, see Fischer, Germany’s Aims, 184. L. L. Farrar, “Carrot and Stick: German Efforts to Conclude a Separate Peace With Russia, November, 1914–December, 1915,” East European Quarterly 10, no. 2 (Summer 1976): 162.
6 For Danish contacts, see Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor, 238; for Bethmann to Falkenhayn, see 243.
7 H. G. Wells, Mr Britling Sees It Through (New York: Macmillan, 1917), 351, 288. Jay Winter, ed., The Legacy of the Great War: Ninety Years On (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2009), 111.
8 For Churchill, see J. F. C. Fuller, A Military History of the Western World, vol. 3 (New York: Da Capo, 1957), 271. From an interview given to the New York Inquirer in August 1936.
9 For Russia, see Orlando Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891–1924 (New York: Penguin, 1996), 408–19.
10 For Wilson, see Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 105–12.
11 For the survival of the old order, see the incisive analysis in Craig, Germany, 396–433, “dead past” is on 422. For “barely tolerated,” see Eric D. Weitz, Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 115–21.
12 For Wilson, see Knock, To End All Wars, 108–09.
By the Same Author
The Rascal King
The World According to Peter Drucker
Colossus (editor)
Pols (editor)
Age of Betrayal
Copyright © 2012 by Jack Beatty
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Beatty, Jack.
The lost history of 1914 : reconsidering the year the great war began / Jack Beatty.—1st U.S. ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 978-0-8027-7910-6 (ebook)
1. World War, 1914–1918—Causes. 2. World War, 1914–1918—Diplomatic history. 3. Europe—History—1871–1918. 4. Europe—Politics and government—1871–1918. 5. Mexico—History—Revolution, 1910–1920. 6. United States—Foreign relations—Mexico. 7. Mexico—Foreign relations—United States. I. Title.
D511.B3263 2012
940.3—dc23
2011029285
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